New Political Formations in the 18th Century CE Chapter Notes | Window on the Word Class 7: Solutions, Notes & Worksheets PDF Download

Political Changes in 18th Century India

During the 18th century CE, India experienced significant political transformations. This era marked the decline of the once-powerful Mughal Empire and the emergence of various independent and semi-independent states.

Following the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 CE, the Mughal Empire's downfall accelerated. Despite its nominal existence for about 150 more years, the empire operated as a mere semblance of its former glory. Its control and influence waned considerably during this phase.

Causes of Decline of the Mughal Empire

• The Mughal Empire became too large to govern efficiently by a central authority.
• Later Mughal rulers lacked administrative skills and became puppets in the hands of the court nobles.
• Internal conflicts arose due to the absence of a clear law of succession, weakening the government's stability.
• Aurangzeb's religious policies angered various communities like Rajputs, Sikhs, Jats, and Marathas, leading to revolts.
• Continuous wars and drained treasury due to Aurangzeb's campaigns weakened the empire.
• Depletion of the treasury led to delays in paying the troops, causing discontent among them.
• The military lacked resources to handle external threats and suppress provinces seeking independence.
• Marathas captured a significant part of the empire, followed by invasions by Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali.
• The Mughal Empire suffered defeats at the hands of the British in the Battle of Buxar (1764 CE).
• By 1800 CE, the Mughal Empire was reduced to a small region around Delhi.
• After the Great Rebellion of 1857, the last Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah II, was overthrown by the British and exiled to Myanmar.

Conclusion

The decline of the Mughal Empire was influenced by factors such as internal conflicts, financial instability, external invasions, and defeats in battles. These events led to the gradual diminishing of the empire's power and territory, ultimately resulting in its downfall by the end of the 19th century.

Independent States and the Struggle for Autonomy

We can categorize the emerging regional powers in India during the early 18th century as:

• Former Mughal provinces like Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad.
• Semi-independent states like the Rajput principalities of Mewar and Marwar.
• New states formed by the Jats, the Marathas, and the Sikhs.

Bengal under Mughal Rule

• Bengal was a prosperous province of the Mughal Empire.
• Murshid Quli Khan became the governor of Bengal in 1717 CE.
• He took advantage of weak Mughal authority in Delhi to declare himself nawab of Bengal.
• He moved the capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad and controlled revenue administration.
• Bengal operated almost independently, but still sent revenue to the Mughal emperor.
• Under Quli Khan and successors like Shujauddin and Alivardi Khan, Bengal flourished.
• Maratha attacks and British East India Company interference led to Bengal's decline.
• In 1717, the British gained trading rights without taxes, leading to their eventual control after defeating Sirajuddaulah in the Battle of Plassey (1757 CE).

Awadh

• Location and Significance:

  Awadh was situated in the heart of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, known for its abundant agricultural resources and strategic position facilitating trade between Bengal and north India. It rose to prominence during the decline of the Mughal Empire.

• Leadership under Saadat Khan:

  Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk became the governor of Awadh in 1722 CE, setting up his capital in Faizabad. He stabilized the region by quelling local uprisings and establishing financial security. Over time, Awadh gained autonomy from the Mughals, with the nawabship becoming hereditary.

• Successors and Prosperity:

  Safdar Jung, followed by Shujauddaula, oversaw Awadh's peak prosperity. Asafuddaula, the fourth nawab, relocated the capital to Lucknow in 1775. The era of peace ushered in cultural renaissance, making Lucknow a hub of art, music, and literature. Notable architectural landmarks like the Bara Imambara and Rumi Darwaza were constructed during this period.

• Challenges and Decline:

  Awadh managed to fend off Maratha and Afghan invasions. However, British interference weakened the nawabs' authority. The once-powerful rulers saw a decline in influence due to external interventions.

Hyderabad and the Asaf Jahi Dynasty

• Establishment of Hyderabad:

  The kingdom of Hyderabad was founded in 1724 by Qamaruddin Chin Qilich Khan, who was granted the title of Nizamul Mulk Asaf Jah I by the Mughal emperor. Seizing the opportunity presented by conflicts in the Deccan region and internal strife among Mughal nobles, Qamaruddin effectively governed Hyderabad as an autonomous ruler.

• Asaf Jahi Dynasty:

  Qamaruddin established the Asaf Jahi Dynasty, with his descendants becoming known as the nizams of Hyderabad. Despite being de facto independent, he maintained a facade of loyalty to the Mughal emperors.

• Challenges and Growth:

  Towards the end of his rule, Qamaruddin faced threats from the Marathas under Baji Rao I, leading to the imposition of taxes. Following his death in 1748, Hyderabad experienced turmoil with rival claimants vying for power while facing interference from the English and French.

• Cultural and Economic Development:

  Despite external pressures and internal conflicts, the reign of the nizams witnessed significant cultural and economic advancement in Hyderabad. This period of growth continued until Hyderabad's integration with the Dominion of India, a year after India's independence.

Mysore's Historical Figures

• Hyder Ali:

  Mysore's rise as a dominant kingdom coincided with the ascent of Hyder Ali, a military commander within the Mysore army. Hyder's rapid advancement in the ranks led to him overthrowing the ruling power in Mysore, establishing an independent kingdom in 1761 CE. Despite his illiteracy, Hyder's administrative acumen earned him significant respect from his subjects. His military expertise allowed him to achieve victory in most battles against the nizam of Hyderabad, the Marathas, and the British.

• Tipu Sultan:

  Also known as the 'Tiger of Mysore,' Tipu Sultan succeeded his father, Hyder Ali, as the ruler of Mysore in 1782 CE. Tipu's boldness made him a constant challenge for the British during his reign. Similar to his father, Tipu sought assistance from the French to counter threats, particularly from the British, to his rule. He met his end in 1799 CE while defending the fort of Seringapatam (now Srirangapatna) against the British forces. Subsequently, the British restored the former ruling family of Mysore to power, exerting indirect control over the region.

The Rajputs

• During Akbar's rule, Rajput rulers received watan jagirs affirming their rights to ancestral lands. Watan jagirs allowed Rajputs a say in administrative matters.
• Relations soured between Mughals and Rajputs under Aurangzeb. Rajputs defended their watan and culture in battles post-Aurangzeb, seeking independence.
• Sawai Jai Singh, ruler of Amber, notable for founding Jaipur in 1727 CE, and constructing Jantar Mantars in Delhi, Jaipur, Benares, Ujjain, and Mathura.
• Jantar Mantar in New Delhi aided in tracking Sun, Moon, and planets.
• Rajput rulers, though powerful, often clashed internally and raided neighbors, hindering unity against external threats like the Marathas.
• The relationship between the Mughals and the Sikhs turned sour when Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Sikh guru, was executed by Aurangzeb for refusing to convert to Islam.
• Guru Gobind Singh initiated the Khalsa movement in 1699 CE, aiming to shape the Sikhs into a military-oriented group that combined spiritual pursuits with political and military responsibilities.
• After engaging in battles against the Mughals, Guru Gobind Singh passed away in 1708 CE.
• Banda Singh Bahadur, the subsequent Sikh guru, continued the resistance against the Mughals, striving for an independent Sikh kingdom.
• Following Banda Singh Bahadur's execution by the Mughals in 1716 CE, the Sikhs' determination was further fortified.
• By 1720 CE, the Sikh kingdom expanded to encompass the region between the rivers Sutlej and Yamuna, with a formidable army composed of well-trained units known as misls.
• Maharaja Ranjit Singh united the Sikhs into a single state, conquering Lahore and Amritsar in 1799 and 1802 CE, respectively.
• Under Ranjit Singh's rule, the Sikh kingdom flourished, stretching from the Indus to the Yamuna, establishing itself as one of the most potent entities of its time.

The Jats

• Jats were a farming community residing around Delhi, Agra, and Mathura.
• In the 17th century, they rose as a political force and rebelled twice against Mughal authority.
• Despite being suppressed, they continued to resist Mughal rule.
• Churaman, a prominent leader, expanded Jat territories to the west of Delhi.
• The stronghold of Bharatpur was established by Badan Singh in 1724 CE.
• Under Suraj Mai's leadership, the Jat kingdom flourished and gained control of various areas in northern India, notably Agra.
• However, the decline of the Jat state began with Suraj Mai's demise, leading to its eventual subjugation by the British.

The Marathas

• Shivaji and Rise of the Marathas:

  The Marathas, led by Shivaji Bhonsle in the 17th century, posed a significant challenge to the Mughal Empire. Shivaji, born in 1627, aimed to establish Hindu self-rule.

• Shivaji's Achievements:

  Shivaji employed guerrilla warfare to defeat the sultan of Bijapur and Aurangzeb, and later crowned himself Chhatrapati. His successors faced challenges from Aurangzeb, leading to the rise of the peshwas.

• Expansion Under Peshwas:

  The first three peshwas expanded the Maratha kingdom significantly, capturing territories and defeating rivals. The Marathas even signed treaties with the Mughals for mutual benefit.

• Maratha Decline:

  The Marathas faced a major setback in the Third Battle of Panipat against Ahmad Shah Abdali, leading to a decline in power. Various Maratha families established independent states as the peshwas lost influence.

Maratha Administration

• Shivaji's Administration:

  Shivaji governed with the help of eight ministers and valued positions like the peshwa and senapati. Land revenue was a key income source, with sound taxation policies in place.

• Taxation System:

  The Marathas levied taxes on lands directly under their control and on lands of peasants under other rulers. Taxes such as chauth and sardeshmukhi were burdensome on farmers.

In the wake of the Mughal Empire's decline, various regional powers emerged, but none could prevent the eventual dominance of the British in India.

• Elsewhere

  • At a time when independent regional kingdoms were emerging in various parts of India after the decline of the Mughal Empire, significant changes were occurring globally.
  • In Europe during the late 17th and early 18th centuries, there was a movement called the Enlightenment. This intellectual shift was heavily influenced by philosophers like John Locke, Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, and Diderot, among others.
  • These thinkers encouraged individuals to question established beliefs and to only accept ideas that could be logically reasoned. The Enlightenment ideals played a crucial role in inspiring events such as the French Revolution (1789-1799) and the American Revolution (1775-1783).