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India After Harshavardhana

The death of Harshavardhana in 647 CE resulted in unrest in northern India. Chieftains, who had previously been subjects of kings, began to rise in prominence. Some of them even dared to challenge their kings and establish their own realms. The most notable powers that emerged during this period were the Rajputs, the Rashtrakutas, and the Palas. However, the stability of these kingdoms was later jeopardized by the invasions of the Ghaznavids and the Ghors.

The Rajputs

• The Rajputs were clans who founded powerful kingdoms in northern and northwestern India from the 8th to the 12th centuries CE.
• Trained in warfare from a young age, they were courageous warriors known for their bravery and code of chivalry.

The Gurjara-Pratiharas

• The Gurjara-Pratiharas ruled parts of north India from the 6th to the 11th centuries CE.
• Nagabhata I was a significant ruler of this dynasty, leading the Pratiharas to conquer Ujjain and successfully defend against Arab invaders from Sind.

• Mihir Bhoja, a significant ruler, expanded the empire from the river Sutlej to the river Narmada.
• He gained control of Kannauj in 836 CE, a vital victory due to its central location and economic prosperity.
• Under his son, Mahendrapala I, the empire reached its zenith.
• Constant attacks from the Rashtrakutas led to the weakening of the Pratihara Empire.
• By 950 CE, the empire began to decline and was eventually conquered by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1019 CE.
• The Guriara-Pratiharas later founded the state of Marwar in Rajasthan.

The Chahamanas (Chauhans)

• The Chahamanas, originally vassals of the Pratiharas, gained independence and ruled over Delhi, Ajmer, and Ranthambore in the 12th century CE.
• Prithviraj Chauhan, a renowned ruler, defeated Muhammad Ghori in the First Battle of Tarain in 1191 CE.
• However, he was later defeated by Ghori in the Second Battle of Tarain.
• Chand Bardai immortalized the events of Prithviraj Chauhan's reign in the poem Prithviraj Raso.

Other Rajput Clans and the Palas

• Various Rajput clans like the Tomaras, Paramaras, Chandelas, Solanks, and Guhilas ruled over north India.
• These clans valiantly defended their kingdoms against Arab and Turkic invasions.
• Internal conflicts among the Rajput kingdoms ultimately led to their downfall.
• The Palas, followers of Mahayana Buddhism, constructed numerous Buddhist shrines.
• They patronized renowned centers of learning like Vikramasila and Nalanda, making them world-famous.

The Palas

• Gopala's son Dharmapala expanded the Pala empire to the farthest reaches of northwest India.
• Devapala, Dharmapala's son, included Assam and parts of Odisha in their kingdom.
• Later Pala rulers struggled to maintain the kingdom, and Mahipala faced defeat at the hands of Chola king Rajendra in 1023 CE.
• The Palas were known for supporting art and learning, with exquisite bronze sculptures crafted during their reign.

The Rashtrakutas

• Dantidurga initiated the Rashtrakuta dynasty that governed the Deccan region, with Malkhed or Manyakheta as the capital.
• Dhruva I, who ascended the throne in 780 CE, triumphed over the Palas and the Pratiharas.
• The prominent Rashtrakuta rulers were Govinda III (793-814 CE) and Amoghavarsha (814-878 CE).
• Govinda III expanded the empire from Kannau in the north to Kanchipuram in the south.
• Amoghavarsha, known for his literary talents, was a poet and scholar.

Art, Architecture, and Kingdoms

• During the Rashtrakuta rule, art and architecture thrived.
• The Kavirajamarga was the first book on poetics and grammar in the Kannada language.
• The famous rock-cut Kailasa temple at Ellora was built by the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna I around 940 CE.
• The entire Kailasa temple was carved out of a single rock, showcasing remarkable craftsmanship.

The Tripartite Struggle

• The struggle for Kannauj involved the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas, and Rashtrakutas, known as the tripartite struggle.
• This conflict dominated the early medieval period of Indian history.

Administration and Economy of the Kingdoms

• The kingdoms in this era had a similar administrative and economic structure.
• The king held supreme authority, aided by a council of ministers.
• The kingdom was divided into bhuktis and further into vishyas, each vishya comprising several villages.
• Feudal chiefs called samantas gained prominence and often received land grants instead of cash from the kings.
• Samantas were required to provide the king with a portion of revenue and military support during conflicts.

The Ghaznavids and the Ghurids

• From the 10th century onwards, groups like the Ghaznavids and the Ghorids, of Turkic and Afghan origins and followers of Islam, started invading India through the Himalayan passes in the northwest.
• Mahmud of Ghazni was the son of Sabuktigin, the founder of the Ghaznavid dynasty, which ruled over regions of present-day Iran, Iraq, and Afghanistan.
• Following his father's death, Mahmud took over the throne of Ghazni. Intrigued by tales of India's riches, he conducted raids in the region between 1000 and 1026 AD, taking advantage of the disunity among Indian rulers.
• After seizing Peshawar, he defeated the ruler Anandapala in battle, adding Punjab to his conquests. Mahmud wasn't interested in establishing an empire in India but solely sought its wealth.
• He utilized the riches he acquired from India to construct one of the world's most magnificent cities.
• Despite his reputation as a fierce warrior, Mahmud's appreciation for art and literature was evident in his support of poets and scholars such as Firdausi, the writer of Shahnamah, and Al-Biruni, author of Tahqiq-i-Hind.

• Approximately 150 years after Mahmud of Ghazni's final invasion of India, Muhammad Ghori, an Afghan ruler, attacked India.
• After capturing Multan, Uch, Peshawar, and Lahore, Ghori clashed with Prithviraj Chauhan.
• Defeated by Prithviraj in the First Battle of Tarain in 1191 CE, Ghori retreated but returned in 1192 CE with a stronger army.
• Despite Prithviraj seeking help from other northern Indian rulers, his plea was rejected by laichandra of Kannauj due to historical animosity between the states.
• In the Second Battle of Tarain, Prithviraj was vanquished, marking a significant moment in Indian history.
• In 1206 CE, Ghori left his Indian territories under the control of his general Qutbuddin Aibak, who then ascended the throne of Delhi, initiating the Delhi Sultanate era.

Reasons for Invader Success

• The disunity and internal conflicts among Indian rulers weakened their resistance.
• While Indian forces fought under different leaders and groups, Turkic and Afghan soldiers stood united under a single commander.
• Despite the bravery of the Rajputs, the invaders' organization and superior military tactics prevailed.
• The swift horses of the Turkic army outmatched the heavy Indian elephants on the battlefield.

South India in the Early Medieval Period

This chapter focuses on the Chola dynasty and the broader context of Southern India between the 7th and 12th centuries.

• Several powerful dynasties, including the Cheras, Pandyas, Pallavas, Cholas, and Chalukyas, established their rule in different regions of South India.
• The Chola bronze sculpture of Nataraja-Shiva, depicting the cosmic dancer, is a renowned example of art from this era.

The Chola Dynasty

Early Cholas to Rise of Vijayalaya

We learned about the early Cholas in Class 6. Their influence waned around 200 CE and they disappeared for some time. In the 9th century CE, the Cholas regained power under Vijayalaya, ruling southern India for about 400 years. They conquered the Cheras, Pandyas, Pallavas, and Chalukyas, fostering economic stability, art, and architecture.

Rajaraja I and Rajendra Chola

Rajaraja I (985-1014 CE) and Rajendra Chola (1014-1044 CE) are celebrated as the greatest Chola rulers. Under their reign, the Chola Empire expanded to encompass a significant portion of peninsular India, the Maldives, Sri Lanka, and parts of the Malay Peninsula.

Chola Empire Expansion

The Cholas' strong navy facilitated overseas conquests, including regions of peninsular India, the Maldives, Sri Lanka, and parts of the Malay Peninsula. Gangaikondacholapuram became the new capital under Rajendra Chola, known for fostering trade and prosperity.

Administration

Under Chola rule, south India was unified under a single government. The king, aided by ministers and officials, oversaw the administration. The kingdom was organized into mandalams, further subdivided into valanadus and nadus, with self-governing villages managed by assemblies like ur and sabha.

Agriculture and Irrigation

The fertile Kaveri River banks supported rice cultivation, often with two crop cycles per year. The Cholas engineered an elaborate irrigation system comprising wells, lakes, tanks for rainwater collection, and channels for irrigation. Notable constructions like the Kallanai Dam enhanced agricultural productivity.

Cultural Contributions under the Cholas

• Tamil society flourished in art and literature during the Chola period.
• Key literary works include the Tamil Ramavatharam by Kamban and the Tirumurai, a collection of Shaivite saints' writings from the 12th century CE.

• Inscriptions are carvings on stone or metal used as historical sources.
• Main types of inscriptions include prashastis (eulogies) and plates documenting land grants.
• Prashastis depict kings in a favorable light and need corroboration from other sources.
• Land grants in South India were often engraved on copper sheets, detailing donations of land by rulers.
• The Brihadeeshwarar temple in Thanjavur has inscriptions by Rajaraja Chola covering various aspects of governance and culture.
• The Uthiramerur inscriptions in Kanchipuram district describe an advanced local government system with detailed election procedures.
• The village had a sophisticated electoral system and written rules for elections.