In the previous chapter, we saw how the French Revolution sparked ideas of freedom and equality, challenging traditional societal structures controlled by the aristocracy and church.
This upheaval spread globally, influencing thinkers like Raja Rammohan Roy in India and sparking debates on societal change.
Not everyone in Europe supported a radical overhaul.
The political spectrum included ‘conservatives’ who wanted minor adjustments, ‘liberals’ who favored gradual reforms, and ‘radicals’ who pushed for significant change. These terms varied in meaning depending on the context.
Change in Society after French Revolution
This chapter will explore the key political traditions of the nineteenth century and focus on the Russian Revolution, a pivotal event that brought socialism to the forefront of global politics in the twentieth century.
Liberals, Radicals, and Conservatives
This group of people started to fight for their rights and beliefs.
Socialism in Russian Revolution
Liberals
Liberals were a group of people who wanted to change the society. Their beliefs can be classified as:
Religious Tolerance:
Most of the European countries favoured specific religions. (Britain favoured the Church of England, Austria, and Spain favoured the Catholic Church.)
The liberals wanted to build a nation that tolerated all religions. They opposed discrimination based on religion.
They wanted to safeguard the rights of individuals against the government.
Limited Power of Dynastic Rulers:
The liberals opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers.
They wanted to safeguard the rights of individuals.
They Called for a representative, elected parliamentary government subject to laws interpreted by an independent judiciary.
Selective Voting rights:These people did not want to adopt a Universal Adult Franchise, which means they wanted Voting rights to be reserved only for men who had a good amount of property.
Radicals
Radicals wanted a nation in which government was based on the majority of the country’s population.
Radicals had the idea of the formation of a government based only on the majority support of people irrespective of gender or financial circumstances.
They opposed the privileges of wealthy landowners and also supported the struggle for women's rights.
Radicals were not against the idea of owning land; however, they were opposed to giving large amounts of land to a few people.
Conservatives
Conservatives opposed radicals and liberals. They were a group who were opposed to the idea of change.
Radicals and Liberals felt the need for a change in society. However, Conservatives were completely against the idea of change in the system.
After the French Revolution, Even they felt that some change was needed.
They believed that the past had to be respected and changes must be slow.
These differing views on societal change often clashed amidst the social and political upheaval that followed the French Revolution. The various revolutionary and nationalist movements of the nineteenth century tested the boundaries and possibilities of these political ideologies, shaping their evolution and impact.
Question for Detailed Chapter Notes: Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution
Try yourself:What did the liberals advocate for in society during the Age of Social Change?
Explanation
- Liberals advocated for limited power of dynastic rulers.
- They wanted to safeguard the rights of individuals against the government.
- They called for a representative, elected parliamentary government subject to laws interpreted by an independent judiciary.
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Industrial Society and Social Change
After the effect of these ideologies on people, There was high time for a change in Social and economic lifestyle. This era witnessed the rise of new cities, the development of industrialized regions, the expansion of railways, and the seismic impact of the Industrial Revolution.
1) Industrialization Problems:
As the age of Industrialization started, a large number of men, women, and children started living near areas with Factories.
However, this progress came with an even higher cost. Work hours were increased, and wages declined at an alarming rate.
Housing and sanitation also became a huge problem.
An image of Russian Industrial Workers in the 1890s
2) Solution by Radicals and Liberals:
Among the challenges imposed by industrialization, The liberals and radicals took a united stand to seek solutions for the problem.
Both liberals and radicals were mainly composed of land and factory owners. They had become rich through their own efforts and trade.
So they believed hard work should be encouraged. This should benefit them by having a healthy, educated workforce.
They firmly believed in the value of individual effort, labour, and enterprise. Because of this ideology, the working class started supporting liberals and radicals by showing their public participation.
3) Effects on World:
Many European people, like nationalists and liberals, wanted to change the governments set up in 1815.
In countries like France, Italy, Germany, and Russia, they worked to overthrow the existing monarchies.
Nationalists talked of revolutions that would create ‘nations’ where all citizens would have equal rights.
In Italy, Giuseppe Mazzini was able to overthrow the government with the help of his people. Hence, He became a popular figure for nationalists. He was able to influence crowds.
Question for Detailed Chapter Notes: Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution
Try yourself:
What were the main beliefs of liberals during the Age of Social Change?
Explanation
- Liberals during the Age of Social Change believed in religious tolerance and opposed discrimination based on religion. - They wanted to build a nation that tolerated all religions and safeguarded the rights of individuals against the government. - Liberals also opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers and called for a representative, elected parliamentary government subject to laws interpreted by an independent judiciary. - Therefore, Option A is the correct answer as it accurately represents the main beliefs of liberals during this period.
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The Coming of Socialism to Europe
By the mid-nineteenth century in Europe, socialism was a well-known body of ideas that attracted widespread attention.
Socialists were against private property and saw it as the root of all social evils of the time. Rather than single individuals controlling property, they wanted more attention to be paid to collective social interests.
Socialists had different visions of the future: Robert Owen (1771-1858), a leading English manufacturer, sought to build a cooperative community called New Harmony in Indiana (USA).
Other socialists, for instance, Louis Blanc (1813-1882) wanted the government to encourage cooperatives and replace capitalist enterprises. These cooperatives were to be associations of people who produced goods together and divided the profits according to the work done by members. Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) added other ideas to this body of arguments.
Marx argued that industrial society was fundamentally capitalist. In this system, capitalists owned the factories and profited from the labor of workers. Since profits were accumulated by private capitalists, workers' conditions could not improve under capitalism. Marx believed that workers needed to overthrow this system and abolish private property.
To escape capitalist exploitation, workers had to create a radically socialist society where all property was controlled collectively. Marx was confident that workers would ultimately succeed in this struggle, leading to a future communist society.
Louis Blanc
Support for Socialism
By the 1870s, socialist ideas spread through Europe. An international body was formed, the Second International.
Workers in England and Germany began forming associations to fight for better living and working conditions, set up funds to help members in times of distress and demanded a reduction in working hours and the right to vote.
In Germany, the Social Democratic Party won parliamentary seats.
By 1905, socialists and trade unionists foamed a Labor Party in Britain and a Socialist Party in France.
Their ideas did shape legislation, but governments continued to be run by conservatives, liberals, and radicals.
The Russian Revolution
In one of Europe’s least industrialized countries, a major change happened when socialists took over the Russian government in the October Revolution of 1917.
This came after the monarchy was overthrown in February 1917, and together, these events are known as the Russian Revolution.
What led to this big change? What were the conditions in Russia before the revolution? To answer these questions, let’s look at what Russia was like just before the revolution happened.
Nicolas II - Tsar of Russia (1814 - 1917)
The Russian Empire in 1914
In 1914, Tsar Nicholas II ruled Russia and its empire.
Besides the territory around Moscow, the Russian Empire included current-day Finland, Lithuania, and Estonia, as well as parts of Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus. It stretched to the Pacific and comprised today’s Central Asian states, as well as Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan.
Russian Empire in 1914
The majority religion was Russian Orthodox Christianity – which had grown out of the Greek Orthodox Church – but the empire also included Catholics, Protestants, Muslims, and Buddhists.
Economy and Society
1. Agriculture Dominance:
In the early 20th century, about 85% of Russia's population was engaged in agriculture.
Russia had a higher proportion of people dependent on agriculture compared to most European countries.
2. Industrial Development:
Industrialization was concentrated in certain areas like St Petersburg and Moscow.
Craftsmen and large factories coexisted, with significant growth in factories in the 1890s.
Russia became a major grain exporter.
The expansion of the railway network and foreign investments in the 1890s contributed to industrial growth.
Coal production doubled, and iron and steel output quadrupled.
3. Working Conditions:
Most industries were privately owned.
Government supervision aimed at ensuring minimum wages and limited working hours.
Factory inspectors had limitations in enforcing rules.
Some workers endured long working hours, and accommodation varied widely.
4. Social Divisions Among Workers:
Workers were socially divided based on village connections, permanency in cities, and skill levels.
Divisions were evident in dress and manners.
Women constituted 31% of the factory labour force but were paid less than men.
Workers formed associations for mutual support during unemployment or financial difficulties.
Despite divisions, workers united in strikes to protest against dismissals or poor work conditions.
Frequent strikes occurred in the textile industry in 1896-1897 and the metal industry in 1902.
5. Peasants and Land Ownership:
Peasants cultivated most of the land, but the nobility, crown, and Orthodox Church owned large properties.
Peasants were deeply religious but lacked respect for the nobility, unlike the situation in France during the French Revolution.
Peasants wanted land redistribution and often refused to pay rent, leading to incidents like large-scale landlord murders in 1902 and widespread incidents in 1905.
Russian peasants differed from other European peasants by periodically pooling their land and dividing it according to family needs in a communal system called "mir."
Question for Detailed Chapter Notes: Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution
Try yourself:
What percentage of Russia's population was engaged in agriculture in the early 20th century?
Explanation
- In the early 20th century, about 85% of Russia's population were engaged in agriculture. - This means that a large majority of the population in Russia at that time were involved in farming and working the land. - This high percentage reflects the dominance of agriculture as the main occupation in Russia during that period.
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Socialism in Russia
1. Political Party Restrictions
Illegal Parties: All political parties were banned in Russia before 1914.
Russian Social Democratic Workers Party (RSDWP):
Founded in 1898 by socialists influenced by Marx’s ideas.
Operated illegally due to government repression.
Set up a newspaper, organized strikes, and mobilized workers.
2. Views on Socialism
Socialist Perspective on Peasants:
Some socialists believed that the Russian peasant tradition of periodically dividing land made peasants natural socialists.
They thought that peasants, not workers, would drive the revolution and bring socialism to Russia faster than in other countries.
Socialists were active in rural areas, forming the Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1900.
The party fought for peasants' rights and advocated for transferring land from nobles to peasants.
3. Differences Among Socialists
Socialist Revolutionary Party: Focused on agrarian issues and peasant rights.
Social Democrats’ View on Peasants: Lenin argued that peasants were not a unified group.He noted differences within the peasant class: some were poor, others wealthy; some worked as laborers, while others were capitalists who employed workers.Lenin believed these differences prevented peasants from being a unified force in the socialist movement.
4. Organizational Strategies
Lenin’s Approach: Led the Bolshevik faction. Believed that the party should be disciplined and control membership tightly due to the repressive nature of Tsarist Russia.
Mensheviks’ Approach: Advocated for a more open party structure, similar to the approach in Germany.
A Turbulent Time: The 1905 Revolution
1. Autocratic Rule
Tsar's Authority: Russia was an autocracy, with the Tsar holding absolute power and not subject to a parliament.
Liberal Campaigns: Liberals, along with Social Democrats and Socialist Revolutionaries, sought to end this autocratic system and push for a constitution.
2. Support for Change
Nationalists and Jadidists: Nationalists in regions like Poland and jadidists in Muslim areas supported the movement for reform and modernization.
3. Economic Hardships and Worker Unrest
Economic Crisis (1904): A sharp rise in essential goods prices led to a 20% decline in real wages.
Worker Protests: The Assembly of Russian Workers, formed in 1904, called for industrial action when workers were dismissed from the Putilov Iron Works.
Strike and Bloody Sunday: Over 110,000 workers in St Petersburg went on strike demanding better conditions. When workers led by Father Gapon were attacked by police and Cossacks at the Winter Palace, over 100 were killed and around 300 were wounded, in an incident known as Bloody Sunday.
4. 1905 Revolution
Widespread Unrest: The 1905 Revolution saw strikes across the country, student walkouts, and the establishment of the Union of Unions demanding a constituent assembly.
Temporary Reforms: The Tsar allowed the creation of a consultative Parliament (Duma) during the revolution. For a short time, trade unions and factory committees were active.
5. Post-Revolution Repression
Duma Restrictions: The Tsar quickly dismissed the first Duma within 75 days and the re-elected second Duma within three months.
Political Repression: To maintain control, the Tsar altered voting laws, packed the third Duma with conservative politicians, and banned most political activity, keeping liberals and revolutionaries out.
Question for Detailed Chapter Notes: Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution
Try yourself:What were the demands made by the workers in St. Petersburg who went on a strike?
Explanation
In January 1905. These included the reduction of working hours to eight hours, an increase in wages, and better working conditions. The strike was a significant event, leading to the 1905 Revolution and showcasing the workers' dissatisfaction with the harsh working environment and low wages in Russia.
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The First World War and the Russian Empire
1. The Outbreak of World War I Alliances: In 1914, World War I began between two main alliances:
Central Powers: Germany, Austria, and Turkey
Allied Powers: France, Britain, and Russia (later joined by Italy and Romania)
Global Scope: The war was fought both in Europe and overseas.
2. Initial Popularity and Declining Support
Early Popularity: At the start of the war, Tsar Nicholas II enjoyed widespread support in Russia.
Declining Support: Over time, the Tsar’s refusal to consult the main parties in the Duma led to waning support.
Anti-German Sentiment: High anti-German feelings led to renaming St Petersburg (a German name) to Petrograd.
Unpopularity of the Tsarina and Rasputin: The Tsarina Alexandra’s German origins and poor advice from the monk Rasputin contributed to the autocracy's unpopularity.
3. Differences in War Fronts
Eastern Front: Characterized by moving armies and large battles with high casualties. Russia faced major defeats against Germany and Austria between 1914 and 1916.
Western Front: In contrast, trench warfare with static lines characterized the western front.
4. Impact of the War on Russia
Casualties and Refugees: By 1917, Russia had over 7 million casualties. The army's retreat led to the destruction of crops and buildings, resulting in over 3 million refugees.
Government Discredit: The severe conditions discredited the Tsar and the government.
Industrial Strain: Russia's limited industrial base and German control of the Baltic Sea disrupted supplies of industrial goods. Rapid deterioration of equipment and breakdowns in railway lines occurred by 1916.
Labor Shortages and Food Scarcity: With able-bodied men at war, labor shortages affected small workshops. Large grain supplies went to the army, causing bread and flour shortages in cities. Riots over bread shortages were common by winter 1916.
The February Revolution in Petrograd
February Revolution
The winter of 1917 brought with it a harsh reality for the people of Petrograd.
The city was plagued by food shortages, exacerbated by the severe cold and heavy snowfall that had struck the region.
Tensions were high, and the government was facing opposition from both parliamentarians who sought to preserve the elected government and the Tsar who wished to dissolve the Duma.
On February 22, a lockout at a factory on the right bank of the River Nava sparked a strike in fifty factories the following day.
Women played a leading role, which became called International Women's Day.
Workers gathered around official buildings and fashionable quarters, which prompted the government to impose a curfew.
After the demonstrators dispersed on the first day, they regrouped on the 24th and 25th, prompting the government to call in the cavalry and police to monitor their activities.
On February 25, the government suspended the Duma, and the following day, the left bank of Petrograd was once again filled with demonstrators demanding better conditions.
On February 27, the Police Headquarters was ransacked, and the streets echoed with the chants of people advocating for bread, wages, better hours, and democracy.
Despite the government's efforts to quell the unrest, the cavalry refused to fire on the demonstrators.
Eventually, soldiers and striking workers joined forces to establish a council known as the Petrograd Soviet by the evening.
Military commanders urged the Tsar to abdicate, which he did on March 2.
The Petrograd Soviet, a council formed by striking workers and soldiers, joined forces with Duma leaders to form a Provisional Government, effectively bringing down the monarchy in what became known as the February Revolution.
Russian Provisional Government in March 1917
Question for Detailed Chapter Notes: Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution
Try yourself:Tsarina Alexandra was of the
Explanation
Alexandra Fyodorovna, the daughter of Louis IV, the Grand Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, was born in Germany on 6th June 1872. Alexandra, the granddaughter of Queen Victoria, married Nicholas II, the Tsar of Russia, in October 1894.
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After February
The Provisional Government was composed of army officials, landowners, and industrialists, but it also included liberals and socialists who worked for an elected government.
Restrictions on public meetings and associations were removed.
In April 1917, Vladimir Lenin, the Bolshevik leader, returned to Russia from his exile.
He and the Bolsheviks had opposed the war since 1914.
Vladimir Lenin declared his ‘April Theses,’ which demanded an end to the war, land transfer to the peasants, and nationalization of banks.
He also argued that the Bolshevik Party renamed itself the Communist Party to indicate its new radical aims.
The worker's movement continued to spread throughout the summer, and factory committees and trade unions were formed, while soldier committees were formed in the army.
In June, 500 Soviets sent representatives to an All-Russian Congress of Soviets.
As Bolshevik influence grew and the Provisional Government's power declined, it began to take stern measures against the spreading discontent, arresting leaders and resisting attempts by workers to run factories.
In July 1917, the Bolsheviks staged popular demonstrations that were seemingly repressed, and many of their leaders went into hiding or fled.
Meanwhile, in the countryside, peasants and their Socialist Revolutionary leaders demanded land redistribution and formed land committees to handle this.
Encouraged by the Socialist-Revolutionaries, peasants seized land between July and September 1917.
The Revolution of October 1917
Lenin became increasingly concerned that the Provisional Government would establish a dictatorship as the conflict between them and the Bolsheviks intensified.
In September, he began talks for a rebellion against the government and brought together Bolshevik supporters in the army, soviets, and factories.
On 16 October 1917, Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party to approve a socialist seizure of power.
The Petrograd Soviet, the banner on the left reads, "Down with Lenin and Co."
The Soviets formed a Military Revolutionary Committee led by Leon Trotsky to organize the seizure, and the date was kept secret.
The uprising began on 24 October, with the Military Revolutionary Committee directing supporters to seize government offices and arrest ministers.
Pro-government troops were dispatched to seize telephone and telegraph offices and protect the Winter Palace.
The Aurora ship shelled the Winter Palace, and the committee captured the city, leading to the ministers' surrender.
At a Petrograd meeting of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, the majority approved the Bolshevik action.
Other cities also witnessed uprisings, with heavy fighting, especially in Moscow.
By December, however, the Bolsheviks had control over the Moscow-Petrograd area.
Question for Detailed Chapter Notes: Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution
Try yourself:
What was the main difference between the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks?
Explanation
- The Mensheviks, led by Plekhanov, believed in bringing changes through peaceful and constitutional means. - They supported the parliamentary system of government. - On the other hand, the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, were extreme socialists who believed in more radical methods. - They advocated for a revolution to establish a socialist society. - The main difference between the two groups was their approach to achieving their goals.
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What Changed After October?
Private property was staunchly opposed by the Bolsheviks, who proceeded to nationalize most industries and banks in November 1917 while also allowing peasants to seize land belonging to the nobility.
They also enforced the partitioning of large houses in cities and banned the use of aristocratic titles.
The army and officials were given new uniforms to emphasize the change.
The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party, and though they conducted elections to the Constituent Assembly in November 1917, they failed to gain majority support.
The Assembly rejected Bolshevik measures, leading to its dismissal by Lenin in January 1918.
Despite opposition from political allies, the Bolsheviks made peace with Germany at Brest Litovsk in March 1918.
In the following years, the Bolsheviks became the only party to participate in elections to the All Russian Congress of Soviets, which became the country's Parliament, turning Russia into a one-party state.
Trade unions were kept under party control. The secret police (called the Cheka first, and later OGPU and NKVD) punished those who criticised the Bolsheviks.
Many young writers and artists were drawn to the Party due to its socialist ideology and commitment to change.
The Civil War (1917 – 20)
A Red Army Unit marches through Kharkiv during Civil War
After the Bolsheviks ordered land redistribution, the Russian army disintegrated, with soldiers, mostly peasants, deserting to return home for redistribution.
Opponents of the Bolsheviks, including non-Bolshevik socialists, liberals, and supporters of autocracy, condemned the Bolshevik uprising, and their leaders moved to southern Russia to organize troops to fight the "Reds."
During 1918 and 1919, the Socialist Revolutionaries ("greens") and pro-Tsarists ("whites") controlled most of the Russian empire.
However, supporters of private property among the "whites" took harsh measures against peasants who had seized land, which led to a loss of popular support.
By January 1920, the Bolsheviks had gained control of most of the former Russian empire, and to gain support, they granted political autonomy to non-Russian nationalities in the Soviet Union (USSR), created by the Bolsheviks from the Russian empire in December 1922.
However, attempts to win over different nationalities were only partially successful, as the Bolsheviks forced unpopular policies on local governments, such as the harsh discouragement of nomadism.
Question for Detailed Chapter Notes: Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution
Try yourself:
What was the main objective of the Bolsheviks after the October Revolution?
Explanation
- After the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks aimed to nationalize most industries and banks in order to eliminate private ownership and establish a socialist system. - This was part of their broader agenda to redistribute wealth and power to the working class and peasants. - By nationalizing these institutions, the Bolsheviks sought to centralize economic control and create a planned economy. - This approach aligned with their socialist ideology and commitment to equality and social change.
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Making a Socialist Society
1. Economic Policies
(i) Nationalization: The Bolsheviks kept industries and banks nationalized.
(ii) Land Cultivation: Peasants were allowed to cultivate land that had been socialized.
(iii) Centralized Planning: Introduced to manage the economy with set targets for five-year periods, known as the Five Year Plans.
First Two Plans (1927-1932 and 1933-1938): Focused on industrial growth by fixing all prices.
Economic Growth: Significant increase in industrial production, with a 100% rise in oil, coal, and steel between 1929 and 1933.
2. Industrialization and Its Challenges
(i) Rapid Construction: New factory cities emerged, like Magnitogorsk, where a steel plant was built in three years.
(ii) Working Conditions: Poor, with numerous work stoppages and harsh living conditions (e.g., workers had to navigate extreme cold to access toilets).
3. Social Policies
Extended Schooling: Expanded access to education with opportunities for factory workers and peasants to attend universities.
Crèches: Established in factories to care for children of working women.
Public Health Care: Provided at low cost.
Model Living Quarters: Created for workers, though the effect was uneven due to limited government resources.
Stalinism and Collectivization
1. Context of Early Planned Economy
(i) Grain Shortages (1927-1928): Towns in Soviet Russia faced acute grain supply issues.
(ii) Government Price Controls: Fixed prices led peasants to withhold grain from government buyers.
2. Stalin’s Emergency Measures
(i) Leadership Shift: After Lenin's death, Stalin took control and introduced firm measures.
(ii) Targeting Speculators: Accused wealthy peasants ('kulaks') of hoarding grain and speculating for higher prices.
(iii) Enforced Grain Collections: Party members supervised collections and raided kulaks.
3. Collectivization Program
(i) Rationale for Collectivization: Small peasant farms were deemed inefficient; modernization required larger, state-controlled farms.
(ii) Implementation:
Start (1929): Peasants were forced into collective farms (kolkhoz).
Land and Implements: Transferred to collective farms, with profits shared among peasants.
(iii) Resistance and Consequences:
Peasant Resistance: Destroyed livestock; faced severe punishment and exile.
Livestock Decline: The number of cattle fell by one-third (1929-1931).
Limited Independent Farming: Allowed but treated unsympathetically.
4. Impact and Fallout
Production Issues: Despite collectivization, production did not immediately increase.
Famine (1930-1933): Severe harvest failures led to a devastating famine, causing over 4 million deaths.
5. Criticism and Repression:
Party Criticisms: Confusion about industrial production and the negative effects of collectivization faced criticism.
Stalin’s Response: Critics were accused of conspiracy; over 2 million were imprisoned or sent to labor camps by 1939.
False Confessions and Executions: Many were tortured into false confessions and executed, including talented professionals.
The Global Influence of the Russian Revolution and the USSR
1. International Response to Bolshevism
(i) Mixed Reactions: Existing socialist parties in Europe were skeptical of the Bolshevik approach to seizing and maintaining power.
(ii) Global Inspiration: Despite this, the idea of a workers’ state captured imaginations worldwide, leading to the formation of communist parties in various countries (e.g., the Communist Party of Great Britain).
(iii) Bolshevik Influence:
Encouragement to Colonies: Bolsheviks promoted their model to colonial peoples.
International Engagement: Non-Russians participated in the Conference of the Peoples of the East (1920) and the Comintern.
Education Initiatives: Some received education at the USSR’s Communist University of the Workers of the East.
Global Recognition: By the outbreak of the Second World War, the USSR had gained a significant global presence as a socialist power.
2. Internal Criticism and Decline
(i) 1950s Acknowledgment: The USSR's style of governance was recognized as inconsistent with the original ideals of the Russian Revolution.
(ii) Critique in Socialist Movement: International socialists noted issues within the Soviet model:
(iii) Development vs. Freedom: While the USSR had achieved industrial and agricultural growth and improved living standards, it repressed essential freedoms.
(iv) Decline in Reputation: By the end of the twentieth century, the USSR’s international reputation as a socialist state had diminished. However, socialist ideals still held respect among some of its people.
(v) Reevaluation of Socialism: Across different countries, socialist ideas were rethought and adapted in various ways.
Difficult Words
Suffragette movement: A movement to give women the right to vote.
Jadidists: Muslim reformers within the Russian empire
Real wage: Reflects the quantities of goods that the wages will buy.
Autonomy: The right to govern themselves
Nomadism: Lifestyle of those who do not live in one place but move from area to area to earn their living
Deported: Forcibly removed from one’s own country.
Exiled: Forced to live away from one’s own country.
Aristocracy: A class of persons holding exceptional rank and privileges, especially the hereditary nobility.
Dynastic: Relating to a dynasty, which is a sequence of rulers from the same family, stock, or group.
Franchise: The right to vote in public elections.
Judiciary: The judicial authorities of a country; judges collectively.
Cooperatives: Enterprises or organizations owned by and operated for the benefit of those using their services.
Autocracy: A system of government by one person with absolute power.
Provisional: Arranged or existing for the present, possibly to be changed later.
Soviet: A governing council in the former Soviet Union, typically elected and based on workplace, army units, etc.
Constituent: Being part of a whole; component.
Kulaks: Wealthy peasants in the Soviet Union who owned larger farms and used hired labour. They were the target of Stalin's forced collectivization.
Collective farms (kolkhoz): A type of agricultural production cooperative in the Soviet Union where land and equipment were pooled and farming was conducted collectively.
Planned Economy: An economic system in which the government controls and regulates production, distribution, prices, etc.
Some important dates
1850s -1880s Debates over socialism in Russia.
1898 Formation of the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party.
1905 Bloody Sunday and the Revolution of 1905.
1917: March 2 - Abdication of the Tsar.
25th October - Bolshevik uprising in Petrograd.
1918-20 The Civil War.
1919 Formation of Comintern.
1929 Beginning of Collectivisation
The document Class 9 History Chapter 2 Notes - Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution is a part of the Class 9 Course Social Studies (SST) Class 9.
FAQs on Class 9 History Chapter 2 Notes - Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution
1. What were the key events of the Russian Revolution?
Ans. The key events of the Russian Revolution include the February Revolution in Petrograd, the October Revolution led by the Bolsheviks, and the establishment of the Soviet Union.
2. How did the October Revolution change Russia?
Ans. The October Revolution led to the overthrow of the Provisional Government, the establishment of Bolshevik rule under Lenin, and the beginning of a socialist state in Russia.
3. What was the global influence of the Russian Revolution and the USSR?
Ans. The Russian Revolution and the USSR had a significant impact on global politics, inspiring socialist movements around the world and shaping the course of the 20th century.
4. What were some of the challenges faced by the Soviet Union after the Russian Revolution?
Ans. Some of the challenges faced by the Soviet Union after the Russian Revolution included civil war, economic instability, and political opposition from various groups.
5. How did the Russian Revolution contribute to the spread of socialism in Europe?
Ans. The Russian Revolution served as a model for socialist movements in Europe, inspiring workers and intellectuals to advocate for socialist ideals and challenge capitalist systems.
