The Sangam Age Kingdoms and The Social and Economic Conditions Chapter Notes | History Class 9 ICSE PDF Download

Introduction

• Refers to the period when Tamil scholars and poets composed most Tamil literature in three literary gatherings called Sangams.
• Spanned from the 3^rd century BC to the 4^th century AD.
• Literature from these gatherings is called Sangam literature, compiled in assemblies known as Sangams.
• Literature from the first Sangam is lost; the Second Sangam produced a large body of works.
• Tolkappiyam, written by Tolkappiar, is the only surviving work from the Second Sangam and is the oldest Tamil literary text.
• Few works from the Third Sangam have survived.
• Sangam literature describes wars and relations among the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kingdoms.
• The Cheras eventually gained supremacy over the other two kingdoms, according to Sangam texts.

Sources

• Sangam literature is the primary source of information about the Sangam Age.
• Archaeological finds like megaliths and inscriptions also provide insights into the period.

Literary Sources

• Include Tolkappiyam, ten poems (Pattuppattu), eight anthologies (Ettuttogai), eighteen minor works (Patinenkilkanakku), and epics like Silappadikaram, Manimegalai, and Sivaga Cindamani.

Tirukkural

• Part of the eighteen minor works, called minor due to shorter poem lengths.
• Written by Tiruvalluvar, it contains Tamil couplets in 133 chapters.
• Covers Dharmashastras (duty), Arthashastras (wealth), and Kamasutras (love).
• Promotes simplicity and truth in its verses.

Poems

• Ettuttogai is a collection of over 2,000 poems by more than 200 authors.
• Pattuppattu consists of ten long poems, divided into Aham (love and respect) and Puram (militarism and hero worship).

Tolkappiyam

• Oldest surviving Sangam work, authored by Tolkappiar.
• Serves as a Tamil grammar textbook and classifies animals, plants, habitats, and human beings.
• Divided into three chapters; the third chapter, Porul, focuses on people and their behavior.
• Example: In Tolkappiyam, the classification of habitats might describe how coastal people relied on fishing, while inland farmers grew rice, helping us understand how geography shaped lifestyles in the Sangam Age.

Epic

• Three main epics: Silappadikaram, Manimegalai, and Sivaga Cindamani.
• Silappadikaram, by Illango Vadigal, narrates a wife’s revenge against her husband’s killer; considered a great epic.
• Manimegalai, by Sattanar of Madurai, focuses on Buddhist ideals and fine arts development.
• Sivaga Cindamani, by Jain monk Tiruttakkadevar, tells of a superman becoming a Jain monk.
• Other epics include Kundalakesi and Valayapathi.

Archaeological Sources

• Include punch-marked coins, pottery, shells, beads, urns, megaliths, and inscriptions.

Megaliths

• Large stones found at burial sites.
• Historian Champalakshmi links the Sangam Age to the last phase of Tamil Nadu’s megalithic culture.
• Large agricultural settlements with chieftains are associated with megalithic communities.

Hero Stones

• Memorial stones erected for those who died for their village, country, or king.
• Mentioned in Sangam literature, often placed near irrigation tanks or lakes outside villages.
• Sometimes inscribed and found alone or in groups.

Inscriptions

• Provide key information about the Sangam Age.
• A 2^nd century BC cave inscription, deciphered in 1966, records a Pandyan king’s gift of a monastery to a Jain monk.
• Tamil Brahmi inscriptions from the 3^rd century AD mention the Chera Dynasty.
• Inscriptions on pottery found at about 20 Tamil Nadu sites.

Tamil Kingdoms

Three major kingdoms: Chera, Chola, and Pandya.

Chera Kingdom

• Kings held titles like Vanavar, Villavar, and Malaiyar.
• Capital was Vanji; Thondi was the main port.
• Cheran Senguttuvan, a prominent king, is noted in Sangam texts for military expeditions, including reaching the Himalayas and hoisting the Chera flag.
• Territory covered present-day Kerala.

Chola Kingdom

• Called Chonadu, Kaveri Nadu, and Punal Nadu in Sangam literature, reflecting abundant water resources.
• River Kaveri was sacred, enhancing land fertility.
• Capital was Uraiyur; Kaveripoompattinam (Puhar) was the second capital and main port.
• King Karikalan, a great warrior, defeated Chera and Pandya kings at Venni.
• Karikalan promoted agriculture and commerce, building a dam across the Kaveri for irrigation.
• Sangam texts note foreign merchants visiting Puhar.

The Pandyan Kingdom

• Covered present-day Madurai, Tirunelveli, and Ramanathapuram.
• Kings were known as Maran, Valudhi, and Chezhiyan.
• Madurai was the capital; Korkai was the chief port.
• Pandyan kings patronized the Tamil Sangam.
• Mudhukudumi Peruvazhthi performed many sacrifices to celebrate victories.
• Thalaiyalanganathu Nedunchezhiyan defeated a combined force of Chera, Chola, and local chieftains.
• The Chera, Chola, and Pandya kingdoms began declining by the early 3^rd century AD.

Local Chieftains

• Known as Velirs, they ruled various parts of Tamil Nadu alongside the major kingdoms.
• Supported Tamil poets, who praised their generosity.
• Helped resolve disputes among kings.
• Contributed to political, social, and cultural development.

Society

Social Classes

• Caste divisions and tribal systems coexisted.
• Society was divided into high-born (Brahmins) and low-born (common people).
• Tolkappiyam lists four castes—Brahmans, kings, traders, and farmers—excluding other common people.
• Shows influence of Sanskritic social ideas on Sangam poets.
• Brahmins were respected and learned.
• Concept of pollution by low-born existed.
• Vaishyas and Vellas engaged in trade, cultivated land, protected cows, made gifts to kingdoms, and performed sacrifices.
• Other groups included hunters, gatherers, fishermen, and animal herders, practicing shifting cultivation.
• People ate grains, meat, fish, milk, and milk products.
• Entertainment included cock fights, goat fights, gambling, and wrestling.
• Women received education, with many women poets active.
• Women had freedom of movement but were not equal to men.
• Example: A woman poet in the Sangam Age might compose verses for Ettuttogai, contributing to the Aham category by writing about love, showcasing women’s literary roles despite unequal status.

Economy

• Simple and self-sufficient, with agriculture as the main occupation.
• Crops included rice, wheat, pepper, ginger, cardamom, spices, and fruits.
• State-built embankments supported irrigation.
• Chera region was known for jackfruit, pepper, and turmeric.
• Spinning and weaving were major occupations; Uraiyur was a cotton trade center.
• Industries included shipbuilding, metalworking, carpentry, rope making, tanning, and ivory product crafting.
• Trade was well-organized, primarily through barter.
• Paddy was the main exchange medium in rural areas.
• Large towns had markets called angadi; hawkers transported goods.
• Extensive foreign trade involved spices, ivory, pearls, and precious stones exported, and gold and glass imported.
• According to the Periplus manuscript, trade flourished with the Roman Empire via ports like Cannanore, Ponnani, and Kottayam.
• Uraiyur exported pearls and fine muslin.
• Roman gold and silver coins found in Tamil lands indicate strong trade with the Roman Empire.