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Contribution of Western Schools of Philosophy

Introduction

It is quite often said that philosophy and education are the two sides of the same coin. Education is the dynamic side of philosophy. Education is practical in nature and philosophy is theoretical. Education is a sacred necessity of a life, both from the biological and the sociological point of view. In other words, we can say that philosophy provides the purpose or the aim and education makes it practical.

We have seen that the importance of education is discussed in both the major divisions of philosophy i.e. the Indian philosophy and the Western philosophy. Both the areas in the philosophical domain play a significant role in transforming the overall thought process. Here, we will talk about education in the light of Western philosophy

Western Philosophy

The Western philosophy is a line related to philosophical thinking, beginning in ancient Greece and including the predominant philosophical thinking of Europe and its former colonies up to the present day. The concept of philosophy, itself originated in the West, derived from the ancient Greek word 'Philosophia' literally 'the love of wisdom' (philein = 'to love'+ 'sophia' = 'wisdom' is in the sense of theoretical or the cosmic insight).

The Western philosophy refers to the philosophical thinking in the Western world, as opposed to Eastern or Oriental philosophies (comprising Indian, Chinese, Persian, Japanese and Korean philosophies) and the varieties of indigenous philosophies.

The Western philosophy has a tremendous influence on and has been greatly influenced by Western religion, science and politics. Indeed, the central concepts of these fields can be thought of as elements or branches of the Western philosophy. To an ancient Greek, these fields were often one and the same. Thus, in the West, philosophy is an expansive and ambiguous concept. Today, however, what generally distinguishes philosophy from other Western disciplines is the notion that philosophy is a 'deeper' and more rational, fundamental, and universal form of the thoughts than other disciplines.

Branches of Western Philosophy

As with any field of academic study, philosophy has many sub-disciplines, but few fields are as vast as philosophy. Generally, the sub-disciplines can be organized under the major branches given below, much as Aristotle divided the philosophy originally. There is now a philosophical sub­discipline for nearly all other major fields of the study and the most are concerned with the interpretations of those Idealism fields.

1.

Aesthetics The axiological study of the basic philosophical questions about art and the beauty, art, history, value theory, bridging with epistemology.

2.

Epistemology The theory and the study of knowledge, consciousness and intelligence, including the mind and body problem in the philosophy of mind and artificial intelligence.

3.

Ethics The axiological study of the moral problems, including the right action, metaethics, value theory, theory of conduct, bioethics, applied ethics and political philosophy, which is concerned with the justice and the punishment, the human rights and the role of the state or the government, bridging with metaphysics is the philosophy of religion, studying the rationality of the faith.

4.

Logic The study of the meaning and the truth through argumentation (or argument), deduction, induction and reasoning, including propositional logic and computation, the philosophy of language and the philosophy of mathematics, bridging with the epistemology and the metaphysics is the philosophy of science, concerned with the problems of induction, scientific method and progress.

5.

Metaphysics The study of the most basic categories of things in Ontology and Teleology, such as existence, the objects, properties and causality, including free will and

determinism, bridging with logic. Epistemology is the philosophy of science, including the philosophy of physics, concerned with physical laws, space, time and force. The philosophy of Biology and the other sciences is like analytical Chemistry and cosmology, the philosophy of religion, which studies the meaning of the concept of God and of the rationality of the faith.

6.

History of Philosophy The study of what the philosophers have written, their interpretations and the influences, metaphilosophy is the study of the philosophical methods and the goals of philosophy, philosophy of the history philosophy of education, and the other issues linking with the history and the value.

Western Schools of Thought

Philosophies of education are reflected not only on the accepted ideals and beliefs of society at a particular time, but also on all those principles that have a bearing on the practices of education. The philosophical thoughts of idealism, realism, naturalism, pragmatism, marxism and existentialism are discussed here.

Idealism

The name 'Idealism', arose from "idea-ism'. Idealism contends that the spiritual aspects are the chief aspects of human life. Natural or scientific facts of life are subordinate to spiritual ones. In the Western world, idealism begans with Socrates and Plato. It was Plato, who wrote that ideas are real. Some of the linkage names that may be cited are Descartes, Spinoza, Kant, Berkeley, Hegel and Leibnitz.

The word 'Idealism' has been derived from the word 'ideas', According to this doctrine, ultimate supremacy is 'ideas'. The philosophy of idealism gives much emphasis on ideas, the feelings and ideals than the material things.

Forms of Idealism

Idealism can be understood with the viewpoints of different philosophers.

The interpretations are given below:

Platonic Idealism: The 'Plato' was a Greek philosopher, who started as a disciple of Socrates and remained ardent admires throughout his life. Two of his most famous works are the Republic and the Laws. According to Plato, "People should concern themselves primarily with the search for truth". As the truth is perfect and eternal, it cannot be found in the world of matter, which is imperfect and constantly changing. Plato saw the dialectic, as a vehicle, for assisting people in moving from a concern with the material world to concern with world of ideas.

Religious Idealism : Idealism has exerted considerable influence on Christianity. It contained many beliefs compatible with idealism. Idea of one God, as pure spirit and the universal God can be readily recognised as compatible with idealism. Augustine referred the two worlds as the 'Wor1d of God' and the 'World of Man'. The world of God is the world of spirit and the good. The world of man is the material world of darkness, sin, ignorance and suffering. Augustine believed that one should release oneself from the world of man and enter into the world of God.

Modern Idealism With the rise of scientific revolution, idealism had come to systemisation and subjectivism. This identification was be largely identified with encouraged in writings of Rene Descartes, George Berkeley, Immanuel Kant, George WF Hegel and Josiah

Main Philosophical Ideas of Idealism

Idealists hold that mind or spirit, as each man experiences, it in himself is fundamentally real and the total of the universe is spirit in essence. The physical world is just a manifestation of this great spirit behind it. The physical world is destructible and changeable. An idea behind it, which is the essence or the spirit of the universe cannot be destroyed. Ideas are expressions of the mind. The mind is able to create them and they are not perishable. The ultimate reality can be understood and expressed only in terms of ideas.

According to an idealist, every person has a 'mind' or 'self or 'spirit', which is spiritual. An individual "mind' is part of the 'universal mind'. The whole has a quality of its own, which the parts do not have by themselves. Another very significant aspect is that idealist believes in about the nature of knowledge. For them, knowledge of the heart of spiritual reality is the highest and worthiest knowledge. This knowledge can be obtained only through intuition unlike the knowledge of the physical universe, which is dependent on the senses. The external world around is a perceived world and not a real world. What is the real idea behind it? of the ultimate reality is

Idealist says that the knowledge not possible through the methods of observation, experimentation, reasoning, etc. which are true guides to the knowledge of physical universe. Idealist advocates the use of intuition, for knowing the ultimate reality. However, they would use both deductive and inductive logic for understanding the physical universe.

The knowledge of the physical universe is basic to the knowledge of the ultimate. Idealism believes in three spiritual values, they are the truth, beauty and goodness. The truth is an intellectual value, the beauty is aesthetic value and the goodness is a moral value together, they constitute the good. These values are already existing and the purpose of man is to discover them. Man cannot create values. Values are the essences, essence preceedes existence.

Idealism and Education

The most important contribution of idealism, to the field of education is that it has provided human life with high aims. It has set out aims of education very clearly. Idealist very rightly point out that the aim of education that is not merely to enable individual to produce more material goods, but to exalt human personality.

Idealism forwards two types of aims in education i.e. one for the welfare of individual and other for the good of the society. The ultimate aim of education is self-realisation or spiritual becoming. Self-realisation is the goal of life and hence, the aim of education.

A self-realised man is an ideal man. He will have internalised the spiritual values. Professor Hiriyana says that "A self-realised man will not be realising virtue, but will be revealing it". The aim of education is to develop the natural man into ideal man. Ideal man will be possessing physical, intellectual, emotional, moral and spiritual perfection and all round integrated and complete development. Idealist includes physical development also as a laudable

aim, but they reckon it only as an instrumental to the health of the mind or the spirit. They believe that a sound mind can exist only in a sound body.

According to idealism, aims of education may be summed up as under

•

Exaltation of human personality unfolding the divine in man.

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Development of rational attitude.

•

Transmission of spiritual and cultural heritage.

•

Universal education for universal individuals.

•

Moral education, which falls into two categories i.e.

(i)

Duties to self, which includes physical fitness, self-culture, industriousness, etc.

(ii)

Duties-to others, which includes respect and appreciation for the opinion of others,

cooperativeness, generosity, liberality, etc.

•

To cultivate the values of truth, beauty and goodness.

Idealism and Curriculum

Idealist likes to give children such knowledge that is of permanent value. They attach a higher importance to humanities than physical and biological sciences. They would like to teach about culture, art, morality, history, philosophy and literature. They would advocate the teachings of all

those subjects that centre around man and like object to the teaching of science and technology, but are aid his moral and spiritual development. They would not only eager to caution that they must be humanised before they are taught i.e. organised and directed towards goals of human welfare.

Royce

Idealism stresses on three values i.e. truth, goodness and beauty. These three values determine three types of human activities i.e. intellectual, moral and aesthetic. Each type of activity is represented by studies or subjects that should form a part of the curriculum.

The following arrangement of the curriculum is recommended by idealism

Value

Subject/Activity

languages, social

Truth

it is represented by an intellectual subjects or activities like humanities, sciences and physical sciences

Goodness

Goodness This includes subjects like ethics, metaphysics, religion, etc.

Beauty to this part of the

curriculum.

Beauty Aesthetic subjects or activities, like an art, the poetry, etc. relate

Idealism and Pupil

an Idealist looks at the child as a self, a spiritual being. He is also a social being. He is not just organismic reality, but basically a spiritual reality. Horne writes "our philosophy dares to suggest that a learner is a finite person, growing when properly educated into the image of an infinite person, that his real origin is deity, that his nature is freedom and that his destiny is immortality". The pupil is in a process of self-actualisation. Education is a necessary condition of the process.

According to an Idealist, pupil is also a social being. He can actualise himself only through the service of themselves. Such a belief is the foundation of a modern off shoot of an idealism known as humanistic idealism. Unlike Rousseau, who considered the child as good by nature and hobbies, who considered man as base by nature.

An Idealist looks at the child as neither good nor bad by nature. They think that he has the potential either to be good or bad, which depends for its actualisation upon environment and education. The teacher and the pupil are equal as both of them are spiritual in nature and have a common goal, self-realisation. The teacher because of his age, has gone ahead of the pupil towards the goal. He is just like the member of an advance party in a mountaineering expectation.

Idealism and Teaching Methods

Idealism advocates the use of ideal-centered methods of teaching i.e. while teaching any subject, emphasis is placed upon the dignity of man, grandeur, worth of human life and the goals of living

Idealist also believes in self-education of the child, but as distinct from naturalists, they would not consider just over activity as self-activity. Rather, they would say that even speculation, meditation and other mental activities are also self-activities. Horne describes self-activity as "power of self­directed pursuit of consciously conceived ends".

For classroom practice, idealists would encourage the use of the discussion and the lecture methods. The discussion method of learning, which is popularly known as the Socratic Method involves questioning and discussion. It was the method of learning in the Upanisadic period of Indian education. It is also known as an Informal Dialectic Method. Idealist values the use of well prepared and presented lectures. Lecture should not be a phonographic recitation of facts, but a scholarly exposition. It should also not be delivered in autocratic way. It should be participatory.

Idealism and Teacher

The position of the teacher in idealist scheme of education is focal. It is the teacher who provides the key to educative process. He decides the opportunities for learning and growing for the students and also sets an environment congenial for that.

Most children are greatly influenced by his conduct i.e. his way of speech, his etiquette, etc. Idealism considers the teacher a friend, philosopher and guide to his pupils. Character development and value development are the important concerns of the teacher. Froebel's metaphor of the Kindergarten perhaps explains the best, the function of an educator. The school is regarded as a garden and teacher as the gardener, whose function is to tend the little human plants in his charge, carefully and to help them to grow to beauty and perfection.

According to idealism, main functions of a teacher are

•

The teacher must assume the role of a Guru

•

The teacher. must understand his pupils

•

The teacher should present high standard of behaviour and conduct them before his pupils.

Thoroughly.

•

The teacher should have a deep knowledge of his subject.

•

The teacher should aim at inculcating in the pupils, a desire to work hard.

•

The teacher should employ thought provoking techniques and thereby, encourage his pupils to think for themselves in his subjects.

Idealism and Discipline

Idealist likes to give freedom to children, but that will be a qualified freedom. It should be for activity. Freedom does not mean license or a way wardness, rather it implies responsibility. It should be regulated, guided freedom, and restrained freedom. Their emphasis is on self­discipline.

They believe that human behaviour should have internal controls, rather than such external controls as praises and punishments. The teacher should win over the child through impression i.e. good personal examples of behaviour and conduct.

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Contribution of Western Schools of Philosophy

e Idealist strongly believes that participation in social service activities develops spirit of sacrifice, an important feature of the life of an ideal person.

Limitations of Idealism

•

Concepts like 'spirit' 'mind', 'soul, "the cosmos', etc are inherent in an idealism, have little relevance in classroom teaching.

•

Idealism in education stresses limitation of models, but younger generation prefers invention and originality rather than imitation.

•

Idealism emphasis on gaining knowledge is likely to turn educational institutions as information monger's workshops. School curriculum becomes overloaded with obsolete knowledge sometimes.

•

Idealistic scheme of education by and large, pays less attention to physical, industrial, social and electronic environment of today.

Realism

Aristotle is regarded as the Father of Realism'. To understand the philosophy of the realism, it is necessary to examine the conditions prevalent in the middle ages.

In the middle ages, the bookish and unreal knowledge was the order of the day in Europe. Consequently, there was a wide gap between the real life and education.

As a philosophy, realism is opposed to the subjective idealism of Berkely and Kant. According to them, physical world has an appearance of phenomenal existence. The perfect triangle or circle

exists in our mind in idea and not on the board or on the paper. While, realism asserts that there is a true reality outside the mind for responding to our conception and perception. The complete and particular is not real than the abstract and the universal. Thus, for realism, reality is objective rather than subjective. Realism regards the wor1d of physical reality as truely fundamental thing is experience.

The physical wor1d is objective and factual. The realism regards the personal wants as subjective, subordinate and secondary, realism is not prepared to accept the existence of an infinite or absolute mind as idealism does. According to realist, mind has been in the course of evolution and is also a part of the universe. Realism is a philosophy of common sense and also the philosophy of science. Realists does not believe in idealist's unreal theory, which has no relation to present life. They opine the truth of life and aim of life is the development from the present systematic life.

In other words, realist says that the world around us is the reality. It is a wor1d of objects and not an ideas. It is a pluralistic wor1d, a wor1d of materials, a world of ideas and a world of experiences. The world is a mechanism. There is an order and design in the world, man is a part of this order.

The world is self-caused and ruled by the laws of cause and effect relationships. According to realism, as reality is outside the mind and the world around is an objective reality, knowledge of the surrounding world is the most to acquire desirable knowledge. The best method knowledge is the experimental or the scientific method. Realists does not believe in an ideal values. They would like to discover values in immediate social life.

Forms of Realism

The realism can be understood with the viewpoints of different philosophers.

Aristotelian Realism According to Aristotle, ideas or forms, such as idea of God or idea of a tree can exist without matter, but no matter can exist without form. Each piece of matter has universal and particular properties.

Religious Realism Thomas Aquinas connected with an idea of Christian revelation and maintained that we are the children of God and our best thinking should agree with Christian tenets. Aquinas believed that God created matter out of nothing and God gives meaning and purpose to the universe.

Modem Realism Modern realism developed an adequate method of inductive thinking. Francis Bacon and John Locke were involved in developing systematic methods of thinking and ways to increase human understanding. Induction is the logic of arriving at generalisations on the basis of systematic observations of particulars.

Humanistic Realism Humanistic realism is a form of realism, which emphasises the general human welfare through education by saying that human beings are the fundamental realities in the material world. So, realities of the material objects must be examined in terms of human realities. lrasmus, Rabelias and John Milton have given this aspect of realism, where, there is no place for logic, grammar or literature in curriculum.

Realism and Education

Education for the realists is a preparation for life. Realists, does not believe in general or common aims of education. Aims are specific to individual and his perspectives. Realism emphasises scientific tendencies in education and accords prominence to experiments in education. They point out the importance of practical aspects of learning.

Realism asserts that education should contribute to individual as well as social development. It says that mental and physical faculties of the child should be developed and senses of the child should be developed through an appropriate experiences. Education should provide the child with the knowledge of both the society and external nature. Child should be trained for a vocational pursuit.

Realism and Teacher

a realist school must be a scholar. They want men of high character and integrity, still they believe that they would be of no avail to children unless, coupled with mastery of information. The teacher is only a guide to children. He must neither be a pessimist nor optimist, but guide the children towards the hard realities of life. He must expose children to the problems of life and the world around them.

The teacher in

Realism and Curriculum

the realists is a means of forming desirable habits. These habits are to be acquired not through conditioning, but through the mastery of subject matter. However, mastery of the subject matter does not mean memorisation of facts. It is rather the understanding and application of knowledge in planning, deciding and executing actions. Realists, prefer a system of general education over a period of time at the earlier stages and specialisation to come later. At later stages, they would like to give a vocational bias to the curriculum. Subjects of the curriculum would include courses in physics, chemistry, mathematics, life sciences and their applications, social sciences in an

integrated way and literature, biography, philosophy, psychology and art. They do not advocate a separate curriculum for moral education.

Realism insists that practical utility of the subjects should be the main consideration in the inclusion of subjects in the curriculum. There should be no gap between what is learnt in the school and what is actually there in the daily life.

Realism and Teaching Methods

Realists encourage the use of lectures, discussions and symposia. They believe in the Socratic method of learning. They do not object to memorisation at the earlier stages. They advocate profuse employment of an audio-visual methods in teaching. An audio-visual aids enable the teacher to develop sensory powers in children. Children would have clear feel of reality through them. Realist, values insight learning as of superior quality.

Realism and Discipline

To realists, the discipline implies to an act, according to rules and regulations of an educational institutions. The purpose of discipline is to make the people submit himself to the directions of the physical world, because he of using any punishment for maintaining the discipline. himself is its physical part. But, they were not in the favour They advocate discipline, by providing a good physical environment.

Limitations of Realism

•

Realism lays undue stress on the needs of the material world.

•

Realism neglects the spiritual world.

•

Curriculum suggested by the realism is lopsided,

•

By placing more emphasis on material aspect realism neglects the human aspect.

•

Realism does not accept the importance of an eternal value without which, it is not possible to attain real happiness.

Naturalism

the greatly Contrary to an idealism, there is another school of philosophy, called the Naturalism which has influenced the educational theory and practice.

According to Rusk, "Naturalism is a philosophical position adopted by those who approach's philosophy, from scientific point of view". This philosophy believes that nature alone represents

the entire reality. There is nothing beyond nature, behind nature and other than nature. Nature justifies all existence including human beings. According to this philosophy, human life is a part of the scheme of nature It is a self-sufficient entry having its own natural matter, natural force and natural laws. purely

Naturalism, applies natural laws to the entire human experience material, rational or spiritual. It emphasise, on matter and the physical world.

This material world is governed by certain laws, man, who is creature of the material world, must submit to those laws.

Forms of Naturalism

Naturalism as a philosophic doctrine, has three distinct forms. They are

Physical Naturalism This form believes that the laws of physical nature govern the laws of human life. Reality does not exist within an individual. It is rather outside him, in the natural universe. Tagore calls 'nature' as the 'manuscript of God'. Since human life is moulded and controlled by external nature, it should be in accordance with the natural laws. Such a philosophy throws man into the background and as such, it has not influenced an educational theory and practice.

Mechanical Naturalism This form regards man as a mere machine. There is no spirit or soul. Only matter is everything. Mind is also matter, which is made up of atoms, empty space and motion. Matter keeps on moving and changing and this change is governed by the laws of physical science. Man is also matter, he is a mere machine, governed by mechanical laws. He has no creative capacity, purpose or direction. This philosophy, therefore, aims at training man as a good machine, and keeping it in good working conditions.

Biological Naturalism This form seeks to explain man iin terms of the lower form of life from which he has evolved. According to this philosophy, body which he in common with other animals, is the real man. Man's natural endowments, including his instinct emotions and temperament, are the real signs of his behaviour. If our behaviour is according to our instincts, We feel happy, if not, we feel unhappy, and disappointed. Education should try to sublimate these natural impulses. For socially desirable ends. It is that form of naturalism which has made the most significant contribution to the development of educational theory and practice.

Naturalism and Education

Naturalists believe that nature is ultimate reality and is propelled by her own laws. For them reality and nature are identical . They have no belief in a supernatural reality. As Hocking writes,

"Naturalism denies the existence of anything beyond nature, behind nature, other than nature such as the supernatural or other worldly".

The method of acquiring knowledge advocated by the naturalists is an inductive method. It involves stages like meticulous observation, exhaustive collection, careful classification, accurate description, intelligent interpretation and cautioned generalization. So, naturalists believe that knowledge gained primarily through observation is of utmost importance. They would like to see nature as it is, make specific observations, accumulate and then generalize about the world inductively.

For naturalists, an education is a process of development of natural life. The process of development must be natural and integrated. Education is for both body and mind. The whole being of the child must be unfolded as a unit. As Ross puts it, "Education is merely the fostering of natural development and true education takes place when the nature, power and inclinations of the child are allowed to develop freely with a minimum of guidance".

The dictum of naturalist education is to follow nature of the pupil and of environment as the personality of the child is fashioned by both, An eminent naturalist educator, Rousseau likes to look at the child as he is rather than as he would be.

Aims of Education

According to Herbert Spencer, "The aim of education is to enable individuals to lead a complete life". It is the general aim, which comprises five specific objectives. These objectives must be guiding posters of education.

They are as follows

•

Self-preservation

•

Securing the necessities of life

•

Upbringing children

•

Maintaining social and political relations

•

Enjoyment of leisure

Naturalists strongly believe that, "Senses are the gateway of knowledge". They are very emphatic that all knowledge comes through the senses. The senses are eye, ear, nose, tongue and skin. Knowledge gathered through these is more lasting.

Naturalism and Pupil

The naturalist looks at the child as a little animal. Therefore, his first requirement is to be a healthy and vigorous animal able to stand the wear and tear of living. He depends upon others' infancy, childhood and adolescence. for his physical nourishment and mental nurture during his

The infant educates himself to a great extent. His education should be based upon his spontaneous activities. His impromptu activities are the guides of his education. What the child likes to do is an important index to the kind of activity, which is educative for him at a given stage of development.

The child is very important in the system of naturalist education. He is the centre of an educational system. It is the child himself rather than an educator, the school, the text book or the subject of study i.e. the focus of educational activity.

Education should be geared to the needs of the child. According to naturalists, educational activities should be anchored in the child's experiences, needs and not guided by ideals of adult life. As Monroe puts it an "Education finds its purpose, its process and the means wholly within the child's life and child's experience". This attitude of holding the child as the focus of an educational activity is called the paedo centric attitude.

According to naturalists, children should be given a negative education instead of a positive education. Positive education attempts to mold the child disregarding his natural inclinations. Negative education is not idleness. As Rousseau describes, "It does not give him virtue, it protects from vice, it does not inculcate truth, it protects from error". It helps the child to discover things by himself.

Naturalism and Curriculum

The naturalist conceives the curriculum under two stages: the earlier stage and later stage. In the earlier stage, they prefer to give sensory training as they believe that senses are the gateways of knowledge and the key to experiences. Sensory training is an essential and integral part of the Modem Pre-school Education Movement. The Montessori Schools through their didactic apparatus and the Kindergarten Schools through Froebel's provide for sensory training.At the later stage, naturalists would like to include in the curriculum such subjects as Physiology, Physical and Natural Sciences, so much of Mathematics and languages as is necessary to understand the above subjects, psychology of child development, social studies, anatomy etc. It lays stress on the subjects, which are helpful in the self-preservation of

Naturalism and Teacher

The place of the teacher in a naturalist school is behind the scenes. His duty is just to observe the child rather than to pour information, ideas and ideals or mold character. He has to set the stage, supply the learning materials and opportunities, provide an ideal environment and create

conditions under which natural development takes place. As the method of education involves intelligent direction the teacher should help pupils to select such experiences, which contributes to growth and contain potentialities for further growth.

Learning experiences should be selected, organized and coordinated. A teacher is not a positive but a negative educator. He is a mere observer. He should be one among children and not make his presence felt.

Naturalism and Teaching Methods

Naturalistic methods of teaching emerged out of a revolt against the old, traditional and bookish methods of teaching Naturalist, believes that exhaustive observation is essential for effective learning. Methods of teaching should be inductive. They advise the teachers to tell the children's as little as possible and allow them to discover Pragmatism as much as possible. an

The emphasis in methods of teaching should be direct experience. Rousseau said "Give your scholar no verbal lessons, he should be taught by experience alone". He also said, "Burn the books and break the walls, throw the child into the bounty of nature". According to naturalists, all knowledge must emerge out of actual situations and experiences. Observation and experimentation should replace the chalk and talk methods.

The play-way method of teaching is advocated by naturalists. All learning should take place in the spirit of and by the method of play because play reveals the child's nature and the lines of his natural development. Naturalist talks about the art of delay' during the process of learning for children. They must not be in a haste and hurry as by doing, so they ignore and contradict the natural rhythms of development. Delayed him for discovering these rhythms and provides an opportunity for joining hands with maturation.

Naturalism and Discipline

Naturalists advocate a free discipline. They disapprove of the practice of punishment to children. According to them, punishment should be determined by natural consequences of he should not be punished physically as Rousseau did imagine wrong deeds. If the child breaks the windowpane of his room, for Emile. Instead, allow the child to suffer the cold for night, so that he learns through the consequences. The proverb, 'a burnt child dreads fire', very well fits in an illustration of nature's punishment. The spirit behind free discipline is that the child must learn through a process of trial and error, by his own mistakes. The school should be organized as a free and natural society. The children should learn about the rights and duties of citizenship through participation in such a society and not through lectures.

Limitations of Naturalism

•

Naturalism does not offer definite aims of education.

•

It neglects books, which are treasures of knowledge contained in the printed materials.

•

Absolute freedom advocated by naturalism does not exist. It never existed and will never exist in a civilized society. Child cannot be given a long rope to hang himself.

•

Naturalism minimizes the role of the teacher in an educational process. Even in the electronic age, a teacher occupies an important place in the teaching and learning process.

•

Naturalism does not give due importance to the moral and spiritual development of the child.

Pragmatism

The term 'pragmatism' is derived from the Greek word 'Pragma', which means action from which words like practice and practical have been derived. Charles Pierce introduced these words into philosophy. The contributions of Charles Pierce, William James and especially John Dewey in America are regarded as making up the modern philosophy of pragmatism.

In his book Pragmatism, James described it as 'The pragmatic method is primarily a method of solving metaphysical disputes, which are unending". Pragmatism is a method wherein one looks away from first principles and looks towards last things or consequences of action. It welcomes an idea, which is testable and which leads to favorable consequences. If an idealism speaks of ideas and ideals, pragmatism is concerned only with facts. Other equivalent names for pragmatism are instrumentalism and experimentalism. Pragmatism is also known by various names such as, practical philosophy, utilitarian philosophy and philosophy of consequentialism.

In the words of John Dewey, "Values are as unstable as the forms of clouds". They keep on changing from time to time and reality is still in the process of making. An ideal ends are remotely connected with immediate and urgent conditions. Men naturally devote themselves to the present conditions rather than the remote. A bird in hand is worth more than two in the bush. This is the Pragmatic Philosophy of life. Its chief exponents are William James, John Dewey and S. Kilpatrick.

Forms of Pragmatism

Forms of pragmatism are as follows

Humanistic Pragmatism According to it, whatever fulfills our purpose, satisfies our desire, develops our life is true.

Experimental Pragmatism An experimental pragmatist believes, whatever can be experimentally verified is true.

Biological Pragmatism A biological pragmatist believes that by this type of pragmatism, best is found in the function of thought, in adopting the human and organism to its environment.

Fundamental Principles of Pragmatism

Fundamental principles of pragmatism are as follow

No Ultimate Values The main principle of pragmatic philosophy is that man creates his own values during the course of activity. There are no fixed values for all times to come. Even truths are man made products. There is nothing like absolute truth.

Emphasis on Experimentation Pragmatism lays a special stress on the value of experimentation. It stands for testing every statement by finding out its practical implications. Man is always carrying out various experiments in his life. a

Only that thing is good and beautiful which emerges as useful after experimentation. John Dewey says, "I affirm that the term 'pragmatic' means only the rule of referring all thinking, all reflective consideration to consequences for final meaning and test".

Belief in Practical Philosophy Pragmatism believes that philosophy is not simply a wisdom of the past. True philosophy is one that helps in the solution of practical problems of life.

According to Pragmatism, "Philosophy is the thinking of what to do in a life situation and it is brought into existence when problems occur".

Human Development according to Environment Pragmatism believes that growth of human personality takes place because of interaction with the environment. Man tries to adjust himself to his environment and this results in his growth. During the process of adjustment, man not only adapts himself to his environment but he also tries to mold the environment according to his needs, purposes and desires.

Faith in Democracy Pragmatism has deep faith in democracy. It is only through democracy that an individual can realize the maximum development of his personality. This development is possible only in a social context.

Individual development also leads to the development of society. Thus a democratic social order is considered essential for the healthy growth of an individual.

Revolt Against Traditionalism Pragmatism believes that reality is in the making. Truth is that which works in practical situations. Whatever fulfills one's purpose and develops his life, is true. So, it is a revolt against traditionalism and absolutism.

Emphasis on the Principle of Utility Pragmatism is an utilitarian philosophy which holds that the reality of a principle lies in its utility. An idea or thing which is useful to us is proper and right. In case it is of no use, it is improper, wrong and untrue. In other words, only those ideas and things are true which have a utility for man. In the words of William James, "It is true because it is useful".

Importance of Manpower Pragmatism emphasizes the power of man to a great extent. By virtue of this power, a man can create an environment useful, beneficial and conducive to his own development and welfare of society.

Faith in Flexibility Pragmatism believes that nothing is fixed and final in this world. Everything grows, changes and develops. In other words, the world is changing and everything is under a process of change. Human life is also changing. Therefore, they discard rigidity.

Reality: Still in the Making To pragmatists, the future is more helpful and bright in comparison with the present. The world is still in the process of formation and development. Man is to aid this process of formation to such an extent that all the needs and requirements of human beings are fully satisfied. In this sense, pragmatic attitude is optimistic, developing and progressive

Importance of Activity Pragmatism lays great emphasis on activity rather than ideas. Pragmatists hold the view that ideas are born out of activities. Man is an active being. Thus, the greatest contribution of pragmatism to an education is the principle of 'Learning by doing'.

Pragmatism and Education

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Education should enable the child to learn new techniques to cope with new situations.

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Values are created through experimentation.

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Child learns by doing more than by reflection.

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Education is a continuous process. It is a constant reorganizing or reconstructing of experience.

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Curriculum is activity centered.

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Curriculum is integrated.

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Life situations should be made on the basis of education

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Education is a social necessity. It is the means by which it renews itself.

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Freedom should be given to the child for the development of his all round personality.

Pragmatism and Curriculum

Pragmatists neither approve of a rigid, traditional pattern of curriculum where there would be watertight compartmentalisation of knowledge into different subjects nor do they support a Laissez Faire Policy in curriculum organization. They believe in a certain degree of organization of the curriculum.

They would like to integrate the curriculum with the life and experiences of children. To quote Dewey, "The child and the curriculum are simply two limits, which define a single process". Pragmatists prefer to give integrated knowledge around particular and significant problems of life rather than divide knowledge into various subjects of instructions.

A study of social, economical and political institutions, current, social, economical and political problems, natural resources and such other similar studies can form the curriculum. Life and experiences of the pupil should be integrated with the activities of the school.

According to pragmatists, the curriculum should include tools of knowledge such as reading, writing, counting, nature study, drawing, hygiene, physical training, history, geography, science, domestic science for girls and agricultural sciences for boys. Vocational training is an indispensable part of the curriculum

Pragmatism and Teaching Methods

The focus of pragmatic methods of teaching is on the child-in-society' and his activities therein rather than the book, the teacher, the subject or exclusively the child of nature. Learning always occurs as a result of movement and activity. The teacher has to capitalize upon the activities of children to direct the teaching learning process. Activity is the basis of all teaching. Children should be encouraged to discover and investigate the facts of life. Education must develop the laboratory habit of mind'. The method of teaching should be experimental.

Dewey feels that methods of teaching should develop reflective thinking in children.

They must ask the 'why' of things and not merely the 'how of things. To speak of the actual methods employed in classrooms, pragmatists lean on creative and constructive projects.

As WH Kilpatric has defined it, "A project is whole-hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment". Projects may be worked outside the school also. They take note of the constructive efforts of children. There are four stages in the project method. They are proposing, planning, executing and evaluating. Students participate in all four stages. Projects may be worked by any individual or a group. However, pragmatists would prefer group projects as they allow for cooperation, participation in group life and sharing of responsibilities.

Pragmatism also encourages discussion as a method of learning. It also encourages laboratory work, personal reference in the library, educational tours and excursions. The basic principle of education is that a child is ever active. While doing he is learning, while learning he is doing. Pragmatists tell us to confront the child with real situations not by a passive surrender, but by a constant, dynamic interaction between himself and the changing situations.

Pragmatism and Teacher

Pragmatism regards the teacher as a helper and guide. The teacher assumes the role of 'arranger of experience'. According to Dewey, "The teacher is a guide and director, he steers the boat, but the energy that propels it must come from those who are learning".

The teacher's job is to keep the child alive to

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his purposes

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his capacities

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his limitations

So that, he

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evolves his own discipline

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develops his own values

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makes his own adjustment

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and thus, realizes himself

According to pragmatists, a teacher is not a dictator but only a leader of group activities. He has to plan and organize the teaching-learning situation, provide learning experiences and opportunities for experimentation. He must not impose himself on children. The teacher should treat the pupils as his own equals in regard to social life.

Pragmatism and Discipline

Pragmatism condemns enforced discipline and advocates social discipline based on child's interests, activities and a sense of social responsibility. Free, purposeful and cooperative activities organized in the school lead to social discipline. These activities inculcate attitudes of cooperation and consideration. Moral development takes place through such activities and students develop a sense of self-control.

Pragmatists believe that work can become a play, if it is rooted in the interest of the child. If the activities of children are rooted in the interests, specific needs, capabilities and preferences of children then there is no problem of discipline.

Limitations of Pragmatism

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It by and large ignores internal values

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It pays little attention to spiritual values.

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It advocates a utilitarian approach only.

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It provides a very insignificant place to cultural values.

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It believes that experience is all in all. It ignores the knowledge accumulated through the ages.

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It does not give due importance to regular and systematic instructions.

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The entire knowledge and experience needed by a child cannot be obtained through projects.

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It does not indicate fixed educational goals.

Marxism

The 'Marxist ideas about man and matter are generally known as Marxism. Marxism constitutes the general views about the world and human society. Marxism developed as a protest against an idealist conception of man and the world as represented by Hegel (1770-1831)

Marxist was influenced by Hegelian dialectics, French socialism and English economics. But marxism is a fundamental and total philosophy of life.

Karl Marx's conflict theory is plain and simple. Class struggle constitutes the central theme of Marx's theoretical scheme, which is based on three premises related to his theory of class struggle.

These are

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The history of the hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.

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Social learning determines consciousness. man his

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The class, which is the dominant material force in society, is dominant in the intellectual sphere.

Marx is said to be the founder of conflict perspective. He has helped through his ideas in understanding the nature of society specifically from a conflict perspective. He gave the concept of dialectical materialism that consists of two words' dialectic' and 'materialism"; the idea of dialectic derived from Hegeal and the idea of materialism from Feverbach. But Marx rejected the earlier ideas and presented this concept of dialectic materialism, as a new idea/method of study of social reality.

The main tenets of Marxian dialectical materialism are:

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All the phenomena of nature are part of an integrated whole.

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Nature is in a continuous state of movement and change.

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The development process is a product of qualitative advances, which culminate in abrupt qualitative change.

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Contradictions are inherent in all realms of nature but particularly in human society.

Marxism and Education

Education helps in the development of military and economic power of the state to establish a classless society, the communist society. Because of this, an education system in the erstwhile USSR was given utmost importance, it was highly centralized, strategically organized and controlled by the trusted leaders of the communist Party of the USSR.

Marxism and Goals of Education

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Education should propose the citizens to obey the state and law.

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Education should be compulsory for all citizens.

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The state should bear the burden of education.

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The state should emphasize on imparting objective knowledge.

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The state should promote the physical and mental development of all its citizens.

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Through vocational and trade education, dignity of manual labor should be established in society.

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Education should create a full employment situation.

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The underprivileged should be given priority.

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Education should develop national and progressive temperament.

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There is no place for religion in an education system because it cannot solve the problems of material world.

Different Levels of Education

Primary Education Marxism emphasizes eight years of compulsory free and universal primary education. It should continue till the age offifteen.

Secondary Education After the completion of compulsory primary education, the competent adolescents should be selected for three years of vocational & technical education.

Higher Education After the completion of secondary education the competent youths should be selected for three years of university education.

Marxism and Teaching Methods

The Marxists have followed the following methods of teaching

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Lecture and textbooks

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Tutorials and seminars

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Projects and problem-solving

Main ideas involved in Marxism theory are

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Nature as material in Marxian theory in character everything derived from it.

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Nature develops in a dialectical pattern, where struggle exists between opposing factors.

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Dialectical method applied to human social organization, struggle of social class leads to social change.

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Social relations are the basic factors of economic production.

Marxism and Teaching Methodology

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Emphasis is laid on the practical aspects of education instead of theoretical aspects.

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Marxist education is based on the principle of learning by doing. Students should work both in agricultural farms and factories.

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Education should not be confined within the four walls of the school. The natural environment and the community at large will also serve as great books and teachers.

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Marxist education emphasizes learning through personal experience of the child.

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It emphasizes group activity instead of an individual activity. Marxist education intends to promote cooperative spirit instead of competitive spirit among students.

Marxism and Curriculum

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Marxist philosophy and doctrines will be taught at all levels of education on a compulsory basis. The students should be made conscious about class division, unequal distribution of wealth, exploitation of the working class by the capitalist class, etc.

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Those subjects are included in the curriculum, which tends to develop skill instead of abstract knowledge.

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Marxism lays stress on respect for labor and as such, work-experience is regarded as an integral part of education.

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The curriculum includes socially useful subjects such as science, mathematics, geography, life sciences, geology, astronomy, etc. The history of communist movement and political economy should also be included in the curriculum.

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At the primary level, only the mother-tongue should be taught. But at the secondary level, the curriculum should include foreign language.

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Creative work and co-curricular activities have been given an important place in Marxist curriculum. These include physical exercise, music, painting, games and sports, etc.

Marxism and Role of Teacher

The role of the teacher is significant and crucial in Marxist education. He must be fully equipped not only with the content of an education but also the Marxist methodology of teaching as well as Marxist aims of education.

A Marxist teacher must entirely be different in attitude and temperament from a bourgeois teacher. His philosophy of teaching will be the Marxist philosophy. He must be an active member of the Marxist social order.

According to Lenin, a best Marxist worker can only be a best Marxist teacher. Both in thought and action he must be a true Marxist. He should not have only mastery on the content of an education but also have consciousness about life, social environment and communist ideology. He should possess sound health, respect for cultural heritage, deep practical sense, socialistic bent of mind and true patriotism.

Limitations of Marxism

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Marxist education is absolutely state-controlled education. It attaches too much importance to the role of the state in education.

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The role of teacher in Marxist education is insignificant.

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Marxist educational philosophy believes that economics lies at the root of every human activity. But this is not absolutely true as the principal aim of Marxist education is to acquire productive skill.

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Competition is absent in Marxist education, as a result initiative is not taken by an individual.

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There is no scope of religious and world education in Marxism system of education.

Existentialism

Existentialism may be described as the modern and youngest philosophy. This theory gives prominence to man's passionate, aesthetic nature and to his feelings, like anguish, love, guilt and sense of inner freedom in the tradition of romanticism, emerging from the 19th century, which is centered upon the analysis of existence and of the way humans find themselves existing in the world. The notion is that humans exist first and then each individual spends a lifetime in their essence or nature.

Chief Exponent of Existentialism, Soren Kierkegaard (1913-1855) is regarded as the Father of Modem Existentialism and is the first European philosopher who bears the existentialist label. In his view, subjectivity and intensity should be priced as the criteria of truth and genuineness. We touch reality in intense moments of existence, especially moments of painful decisions. These moments are characterized by deep anxiety and life is known moments and cannot be reduced to just a system of ideas.

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) is regarded as a key figure in the rise of existentialism. According to him, Christianity is to be overcome by putting in its place the doctrine of superman i.e. man surpassing himself.

Martin Heidgger (1889-1976) in his book Being and Time, gave a very impressive analysis of human existence, the prominence of the important themes of existentialism, like care, anxiety, guilt and above all death is brought out here.

Jean Paul Sarte stressed that man's existence precedes his essence. Man is nothing else but what he purpose, he exists only in so far as he realizes himself, he is therefore nothing else but the sum of his actions, nothing else but what his life.

One of the fundamental, foundational concepts of existentialism is that 'existence precedes essence'. It was Plato, who said that the surrounding world is a world of essences-ideas and the purpose of life is to discover these essences. Essences are already there and they precede existence. Even existence is an embodiment of an essence, the self, which is a part of an universal essence, the self.

The other Western philosophers carried forward this theory such as Descartes even affirmed the reality of existence because of its essence-thinking, as he said, "I think' therefore, 'I am'. Bergson even went to the extreme of saying that "I do not think, it (essence) thinks in me", there, striking a transcendental, desperately deterministic note on human existence. As such, existentialism is a revolt against any kind of determinism and an affirmation of the free nature of man. They not only affirm that existence is prior to essence, that man is fundamentally free to create his essence, but think that this is the tragedy about man.

As Sartre, himself explains that first of all, man exists, turns up, appears on the scene and only afterwards defines himself.Existentialists say that man is nothing other than what he makes himself. Such is the first principle of existentialism.

Therefore, it can be easily observed that, when an idealist believes in transcendental values, naturalists believe that values are resident in nature, pragmatists believe that values arise out of social life, existentialists believe that individuals alone create values. Reality is a state of becoming affirm, that existence increases with every moment of life and essence is a consequence of this perpetual becoming.

Basic Concept of existentialism

Basic Concept of existentialism Are as follows

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Existence precedes essence.

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Contingency of human life, the givenness' or 'thrownness'.

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Their view of man 'free will v/s determinism free and he has no other alternative, but to be free i.e. he is not only free, but is condemned to be free.

Existentialists believed in a human being's personal choices and he is considered as an end in himself. They also believe that man is responsible for all the deals and consequences. He, though free, should bear his own responsibility.

Main Philosophical Themes

The main philosophical themes of existentialism are

Truth It is not introduced by an individual, but it is there in himself all the time. Such thinking explores hypothetical knowledge, and achieves truth about the actual concrete individual. Existentialists thinking, according to an individual, is abstract speculative. Truth is passionate, inner commitment, objective and theoretically uncertain. Highest truth can only be attainable by an individual and according to existentialist truth is equivalent to faith.

Aesthetic Life Devoted to art, music and dance.

Choice Choice i.e. either/or i.e. decision between two ways of life.

Ethical Life Seeks happiness in marriage, business or a profession. In this, no more description of choice is possible. Character of choice can only be sketching outline, its qualities or individual, subjective, momentary, absolute and free irrevocable. The choice of an individual in this philosophy is a lead over the abyss (bottomless).

God Culminating of existentialist thinking in the knowledge of God. An individual inner experience may have a choice of achieving eternal God. There is a possibility of union of individuals with God, where the individual is not obliterated (mystic men). Individual man exists in the sense of having a unique dimension of being characterized by choice.

Educational Implications of Existentialism

The whole philosophy of existentialism rests on providing freedom to the child individual and realize his existence as an individual and realize the best that he can. Human beings should be able to face the contingency of human life and the world. Contrary to the happy learning at school or joyful learning and playful experiences suggested by Pestalozzi, Montessori and Froebel, existentialists feel that there is nothing without experiencing pains and sufferings.

Significant educational implications of existentialism are given as

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The school should provide an atmosphere where individuals develop in a healthy way. Children learn better when relieved from intense competition, harsh discipline and fear from failure.

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The teacher is in a position to foster individual growth. They can facilitate the development of originality and creativity by providing a climate as well as basic Skills and the tools which

makes exploration possible. School grades or the rewards and punishments do not foster growth.

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The teacher is in the foreground and is the center of attention. Students resistance is often manifested during the process of an instruction, but as resistance is natural and necessary in order that the student may retain his over being. The teacher welcomes the challenges to his ideas from the students.

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The mechanization and impersonality should be counteracted in the school. Concern and respect for individual students should be a feature of the school. Education in the contemporary, industrial and technological society may well be cleansed and strengthened by emphasis on man for himself.

Existentialism and Aims of Education

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Education should aim at imparting knowledge to an individual, pertaining to human nature. especially, from the existentialist point of view. Education should help an individual to make him/her a good human.

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The development of introspective powers should also be the aim of education. It should develop powers like self observation among pupils.

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Education must also develop in the pupil, a scale of values consistent with absolute freedom. The pupil must develop a commitment to these values and act for them.

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Education must foster the growth of uniqueness in man. This should be the primary aim of education because existentialists are not interested in the universal man.

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Education must make pupils aware of the infinite possibilities of his freedom and the responsibilities he must discharge in his/her life. Education must foster the capacity for self-direction.

Existentialism and Curriculum

Existentialists do not believe in prescriptive curriculum. It should be based on child's needs and abilities, related to immediate social, political, economical and related problems of the child.

The main features of the curriculum are

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It should not be examination oriented.

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Appropriate to the student

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Not lay stress on mere studying of the subjects. experiencing the

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Emphasizes on living, enacting and Death.

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Enable the child to learn about human suffering,Anguish,anxiety and death.

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Helps to acquire self-knowledge.

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It should be child-centered.

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Utilitarian

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Realistic

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Elective based

Existentialism and Teaching Methods

The most favored method is the Socratic method involves personal, intimate relations and helps in acquiring knowledge and wisdom by bringing teachers and taught together closely. More preference is given to education at home than at school.

However the methods preferred are

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Socratic method

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Individualized

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Informal method

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Discussion method

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Method of induction

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Methods to develop creativity

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Methods which can test inner life

Existentialism and Discipline

Freedom is central to existentialism, freedom to cultivate children's experiences in the free atmosphere. Children need not to conform. A child has its own personal choice and action. No restriction should be laid from outside. Instead, a child should realize its own responsibility and act.

Existentialism and Teacher

Teachers should not impose their ideas, ideals and values on children. Teacher should allow the children to think about the problems of life and make them think critically and understand the meaning and purpose of existence. Teachers should be sympathetic to that child, who is rebellious in nature. A teacher should not think about children as problem children. Instead, the teacher should empathize with problem children by entering in the emotional life and expressing concern.

Limitations of Existentialism

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More emphasis on the subjectivity and negligence of objectivity cannot be practically followed in this material world.

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There is no uniqueness in this theory as many of its ideas have been covered under naturalism and idealism.