How did the Second World War in the Asia–Pacific develop? | History for GCSE/IGCSE - Year 11 PDF Download

Origins of the War in Asia

• World War II began on July 7, 1937, not in Poland or at Pearl Harbor, but in China. On that date, Japanese and Chinese troops clashed outside Beijing, and within days, the local conflict escalated into a full, though undeclared, war between China and Japan.
• Initially, no Western powers were openly involved in the conflict between China and Japan. The Chinese Nationalist (Kuomintang) government, led by Chiang Kai-shek, was forced to retreat to the interior as the Japanese invaded major eastern cities like Shanghai, Beijing, and Nanjing, committing numerous atrocities along the way. The Chinese Communists maintained their base in northwest China. Despite appearances that China might have to surrender and accept Japanese terms, they continued to resist, receiving unofficial assistance from the Soviet Union, the United States, and Britain, in hopes that a foreign power would come to their aid.
• By 1941, it became increasingly evident that Japan aimed to dominate all of East Asia. Britain was deeply embroiled in a struggle for survival against Hitler's Germany. The United States, under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, decided to counter Japanese ambitions. On August 1, the United States imposed an oil embargo on Japan, cutting off about 80 percent of its supplies. In response, Japan began to develop a high-risk plan to alter the situation.

Pearl Harbor and the US Response

• On December 7, 1941, just before 8 o'clock in the morning local time, Japanese military aircraft launched a surprise attack on the US Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. Within two hours, the assault had left 18 US naval ships sunk or damaged, 347 planes destroyed, and inflicted heavy casualties, with 2,403 killed and 1,178 wounded. President Roosevelt famously declared it a "day which will live in infamy."
• When Japan chose to declare war on the United States, it understood the immense risk involved. One leader likened the decision to throwing oneself off the Kiyomizu temple in Kyoto. However, Japan's leaders gambled on swiftly winning the war by crippling America's naval capabilities in the Pacific, thereby preventing US interference with Japan's expansion into Southeast Asia. They recognized, as did Britain's Prime Minister Winston Churchill and China's leader Chiang Kai-shek, that America's industrial capacity could ultimately tip the scales in a prolonged conflict, thanks to its ability to replenish ships, armaments, and troops.
• In hindsight, the attack on Pearl Harbor was not as strategically effective as it might have seemed. To cause longer-term damage, targeting power plants, oil reserves, and naval repair facilities would have been more impactful. Nevertheless, it marked the beginning of a series of Japanese military successes. Within days and weeks, Japan seized territories including Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaya, and the Dutch East Indies, which were rich in vital resources like oil, rubber, tin, and bauxite. In the Philippines, under American control, Japanese forces compelled General Douglas MacArthur to retreat, prompting his famous vow, "I will return." Guam and Wake Island, both US territories, also fell to Japanese forces. Additionally, the Japanese won two major naval battles in the Pacific in the first half of 1942, at the Java Straits and the Coral Sea.
• A pivotal moment occurred from June 4-7, 1942, during the Battle of Midway Island. The Japanese naval command attempted to lure out the American navy, unaware that US intelligence had cracked their codes and prepared for the attack. In the ensuing battle, Japan suffered significant losses, including four aircraft carriers, a heavy cruiser, and over 300 planes.
• Following this defeat, Japan's military focus in the Pacific shifted to defensive strategies. US forces gradually recaptured territory, beginning with the Solomon Islands in 1942. In 1943, they advanced steadily, reclaiming the Philippines and launching attacks on New Guinea. A central Pacific assault saw US forces systematically regain control over areas previously conquered by Japan.

Liberating Empires

• Definition of Liberation in WWII
  • In World War II, 'liberation' had diverse meanings. In Europe, it denoted freedom from Nazi control and the establishment or reinstatement of democratic regimes.
  • In Asia, it signified liberation from Japanese dominance and a broader concept of ending imperial dominance across the region as a whole.
• Impact of Liberation Aspirations
  • During WWII, most of Asia either existed as colonies or operated under foreign-imposed regulations.
  • The conflict sparked a new yearning for freedom not solely from Japanese authority but also from British, French, Dutch, and American control.
• Chiang Kai-shek's Diplomatic Efforts
  • In February 1942, Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek journeyed to India, which was then under British governance.
  • Formally allied with the US and the British Empire, Chiang sought support from Indian independence figures like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru to engage in the war effort.
  • Winston Churchill's subsequent visit to India and his call for Indian independence underscored the changing attitudes of Asian leaders towards colonial powers.

Japanese Occupation in Asia and Post-War Geopolitical Changes

• Japanese Brutality During Occupation: During their occupation of Asia, the Japanese rule was marked by extreme brutality. Notably, in 1937, the Japanese captured Nanjing, leading to the massacre of thousands of Chinese civilians. Similarly, in 1945, during their retreat from Manila, Filipino civilians also faced mass killings by Japanese troops.
• Opportunities for Independence Activists: For many independence activists like Aung San in Burma and Sukarno in the Dutch East Indies, the wartime period presented an opportunity to envision and work towards independence. They believed that after the expulsion of the Japanese from the region, new independent Asian states could emerge.
• Roosevelt's Vision and New World Order: President Roosevelt looked towards China as a cornerstone of a new global order. In 1943, Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek was invited to a conference in Cairo, attended by Allied leaders including Roosevelt and Churchill. This marked a significant shift as a non-Western leader sat alongside Western powers, hinting at forthcoming changes in the global order post-war.
• The Concept of the "Four Policemen": Roosevelt introduced the concept of the "four policemen" - the United States, Great Britain, China, and the USSR - who would be responsible for maintaining this new order. These countries, along with France, eventually became the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council established in 1946.
• Challenges in US-China Relations: Despite the envisioned post-war order, relations between the United States and China faced challenges during 1941-1945. General Joseph Stilwell, Chiang's American Chief of Staff, criticized Chiang as corrupt and incompetent, while Chiang viewed Stilwell as insubordinate. This strained relationship persisted due to differing perceptions and historical burdens.

Aftermath of World War II in Asia

• Japan's Vulnerable Position: By early 1945, Japan faced increased vulnerability as US bombers could easily reach its mainland. The devastating firebombing of Tokyo on March 9-10, 1945, resulted in the death of approximately 80,000 civilians.
• Turning Point Events: In August, two significant events unfolded. Firstly, on August 9, the USSR declared its participation in the war against Japan. Secondly, on August 6 and 9, the United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, leading to Japan's eventual surrender on August 15.
• Impact on Asia: Japan's sudden collapse reshaped the entire Asian region. The empire Japan had established across Asia was dismantled swiftly. Former European powers reclaimed territories; for instance, the British took back Hong Kong and Malaya, while the French regained control of Indochina.
• Postwar Transformations: Post-war occupation efforts in Japan transformed the country into a democratic state between 1945-1952. Concurrently, the rest of Asia embarked on diverse paths. Notably, China saw the fall of its Nationalist government and the rise of a communist regime under Mao Zedong in 1949.
• End of Imperialism in Asia: The overarching consequence of World War II in Asia was the termination of the era of imperialism on the continent. The war's aftermath paved the way for decolonization struggles in various regions, with many colonies achieving independence after prolonged conflicts.