Important Questions & Answer: Variations in Psychological Attributes - 2 | Psychology Class 12 - Humanities/Arts PDF Download

Very Short Answer Questions

Q1: What is the term for when situational circumstances influence behaviour more than others ones?
Ans:  Situationism is the term that describes how a person's behaviour is influenced more by their circumstances than by their personal traits. 

Q2: What is psychological attribute assessment? 
Ans: Psychological attribute assessment involves measuring an individual's psychological traits and evaluating them against established standards

Q3: What are individual differences, according to psychology? 
Ans: Individual differences refer to the unique traits and behaviours that make each person distinct. These differences can be seen in various aspects, including physical characteristics and psychological traits

Q4: Who was the first to propose the triarchic theory of intelligence?
Ans: Robert J. Sternberg proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence in 1985

Q5:What is meant by a Cognitive Assessment System (CAS)?
Ans: It is a combination of verbal and nonverbal tasks that is used to assess cognitive abilities in people between the ages of 5 and 18 years old. Children with learning difficulties who have cognitive deficits may benefit from the assessment's findings.

Q6:  What is contextual intelligence? 
Ans: Contextual intelligence, also known as practical intelligence, is the ability to effectively respond to everyday environmental challenges

Q7: What is aptitude?
Ans: Aptitude refers to an individual's potential to acquire specific skills or knowledge through training. It is influenced by various traits and can be assessed using tests.

Q8: What is evaluation? 
Ans: Evaluation refers to the process of measuring and assessing a person's psychological characteristics

Q9: What term describes an outstanding general ability reflected in high-level performance across multiple areas?
Ans: Giftedness refers to exceptional general talent or intelligence that is often demonstrated through superior performance in a wide range of domains, such as academics, creativity, leadership, or the arts.

Short Answer Questions

Q10: What are the critical attributes of assessment for a psychologist? 
Ans: 

• Intelligence: The global ability to understand the world, think rationally and logically, and use available resources effectively to meet challenges.
• Aptitude: It refers to an individual's potential to acquire new skills.
• Interest: It refers to an individual's decision to engage in one or more particular activities in relation to him relative to others.
• Personality: It refers to the strong qualities of a person that make him/her stand out from others. Personality assessments help explain a person's behaviour and predict how they will behave in the future, etc.
• Values: Refers to a person's strength and enduring beliefs about ideal behaviour. Assessing values helps us understand a person's general values (e.g. political, religious, social or economic).

Q11: How do psychologists characterise and define intelligence? 
Ans: For psychologists, intelligence is a key parameter that indicates individual differences. The characteristics of an intelligent person are sharpness of mind, quick wit, rapid learning, and the ability to understand context. Intelligent individuals not only adapt to their environment but also actively shape it. This view is supported by psychologists like Gardner and Sternberg, who emphasise the importance of modifying one's surroundings as a sign of intelligence.

Q12: List some characteristics of an emotionally intelligent person. 
Ans: The characteristics of emotionally intelligent persons are: 

• Perception of Emotions: Recognise and be aware of your own feelings.
• Sensitivity to Others: Notice others' emotions through their body language, tone, and facial expressions.
• Emotional Awareness: Connect your emotions with your thoughts when solving problems or making decisions.
• Understanding Emotions: Acknowledge the strong impact of your emotions and their intensity.
• Emotional Control: Manage and express your emotions appropriately to foster harmony and peace.

Q13: Describe the following psychological characteristics. (i) Intelligence (ii) Aptitude 
Ans: 

• Intelligence: The overall ability to understand the world, think rationally, and use available resources effectively when faced with challenges. Intelligence tests provide a global measure of an individual's overall cognitive ability, including the ability to benefit from schooling. In general, students with low intelligence are less likely to do well on school-related exams, but their success in life is not tied solely to intelligence on exam results. 
• Aptitude:   This refers to an individual's potential to learn specific skills. Aptitude tests predict what a person can achieve with the right environment and training. For example, someone with a high aptitude for mechanics can excel as an engineer with appropriate training, while those with strong language skills can become proficient writers.

Q14: Distinguish between concurrent and serial processing with an example
Ans:

• Concurrent Processing: Concurrent processing involves understanding relationships between different concepts simultaneously. For example, in the Raven's Progressive Matrices (RPM) test, you are presented with a design that has a missing part. You must select one of six options that best complete the design, integrating various elements at once.
• Serial Processing: In contrast, serial processing occurs when you recall information in a specific order, where each piece leads to the next. For instance, learning numbers, alphabets, and multiplication tables follows a sequence, with each step building on the previous one.

Q15: Distinguish between verbal and ability tests of intelligence? 
Ans:

• Oral Exam: This test requires individuals to respond either orally or in writing. It is suitable for literate people since it involves communication skills.
• Performance Test: This type of test involves tasks where individuals manipulate materials to complete assignments. It is accessible to people from various cultures and does not require writing.

Q16: Which do you think is related to success in life, IQ or EQ? Why? 
Ans:  EQ (Emotional Intelligence Quotient) is more closely related to success in life than IQ (Intelligence Quotient). Here are some reasons why:

• Emotional intelligence helps individuals manage their emotions and understand others' feelings.
• It supports academic success by enabling students to cope with stress and challenges.
• Enhances cooperative behaviour and reduces anti-social activities.
• Prepares individuals for real-life challenges beyond the classroom.

Q17: Explain Lewis Thurstone's theory of primary mental functions. 
Ans: According to Lewis Thurstone, intellect consists of his seven main abilities, each relatively independent. These key skills are: 

• Language Comprehension: Understanding the meaning of words, concepts, and ideas.
• Numerical Skills: Speed and accuracy in numerical and arithmetic tasks.
• Spatial Relationships: Visualising patterns and shapes.
• Perceptual Speed: The speed at which details are perceived.
• Word Fluency: The ability to use words fluently and flexibly.
• Memory: Accuracy in recalling information.
• Inductive Reasoning: Deriving general rules from specific facts.

Long Answer Type Questions

Q18:  Explain the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner. 
Ans: According to Gardner, intelligence is not a single entity. There are indeed many different types of intelligence.

Here are some key points about Gardner's thoughts on multiple intelligences.

•  Intelligence is independent of each other. 
• Different kinds of intelligence interact and work together to find solutions to problems.

Gardner identified eight distinct types of intelligence:

• Linguistic Intelligence: The ability to use language effectively. Individuals with this intelligence, such as poets and writers, are skilled in expressing thoughts and understanding others.
• Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: This involves logical reasoning and problem-solving skills. Those strong in this area, like scientists and mathematicians, excel in abstract thinking and numerical manipulation.
• Bodily-Kinaesthetic Intelligence: The capacity to use one's body skillfully. Athletes, dancers, and surgeons often exhibit this intelligence through physical coordination and dexterity.
• Interpersonal Intelligence: The ability to understand and interact effectively with others. Psychologists and teachers typically possess high levels of this intelligence, allowing them to build strong relationships.
• Intrapersonal Intelligence: This refers to self-awareness and understanding one's own emotions and motivations. Individuals with this intelligence are often reflective and insightful.
• Spatial Intelligence: The ability to visualise and manipulate objects in space. Architects, artists, and pilots often demonstrate this intelligence through their spatial reasoning skills.
• Musical Intelligence: The capacity to discern and create musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. Musicians and composers typically excel in this area, showing sensitivity to sound and patterns.
• Naturalistic Intelligence: The ability to recognise and categorise elements in the natural world. This intelligence is often seen in biologists, farmers, and environmentalists who appreciate nature's diversity.

Q19: How does the triarchic theory explain the concept of intelligence?
Ans: The triarchic theory of intelligence, proposed by Robert Sternberg in 1985, defines intelligence as the ability to adapt, shape, and select environments to achieve personal and societal goals. This theory identifies three main types of intelligence:

• Componential Intelligence(Analytical Intelligence) is primarily concerned with analysing information to solve specific problems. Component Intelligence involves three components: 
  i) Knowledge Acquisition Component: Responsible for learning and acquiring knowledge.
  ii) Meta Component: Involves planning how to approach tasks.
  iii) Performance Component: Focuses on executing tasks effectively.
• Experiential Intelligence (Creative Intelligence): This type uses past experiences to solve problems. Individuals with high experiential intelligence can integrate various experiences to create new ideas and innovations.
• Contextual Intelligence(Practical Intelligence): This intelligence relates to everyday environmental demands. People with strong contextual intelligence can:
  i) Adapt to their surroundings.
  ii) Select more favourable environments.
  ii)Modify their environment to suit their needs. Such individuals often achieve success in life.

Q20: "All intellectual activity involves three independent functions of the nervous system." Explain using the PASS model. 
Ans:  The PASS model, created by J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby in 1994, outlines three key functions of the nervous system that contribute to intellectual activity. These functions are:

Arousal/Attention: This function is crucial for any behaviour as it helps us focus on important stimuli. An optimal level of arousal enhances our attention, allowing us to process information effectively. For example, when a teacher announces a test, it prompts you to concentrate on the relevant chapters.

Simultaneous and serial processing: Simultaneous and sequential processing relate to how the brain processes information, establishes relationships between available data, and integrates it into meaningful and understandable patterns. Simultaneous processing allows us to grasp the meaning and relationships between given abstract figures. A chain of action is when all the necessary information is in order, and how one step leads to the next, and so on. Examples: Learning numbers, alphabets, multiplication tables, etc. are examples of continuous processing.

Planned alertness: After processing information, planning enables us to set goals and devise strategies to achieve them. For example, preparing for a test involves creating a study schedule and seeking help when necessary.

These processes are dynamic and interact with each other, operating on knowledge gained both formally and informally. The Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) was developed to measure these cognitive functions through various tasks, aimed at individuals aged 5 to 18. The results can help address learning difficulties in children. Overall, the PASS model represents an information-processing approach to understanding intelligence, highlighting the interdependence of these three neurological functions.

Q21: Define intellectual disability and analyse its various levels.
Ans: Intellectual disability is defined as having below-average general intellectual functioning, along with difficulties in adaptive behaviour, which appear during the developmental period. The levels of intellectual disability are classified as follows:

• Mild disability (IQ 55-69): Individuals can perform daily tasks and care for themselves, though they may work more slowly than others.
• Severe disability (IQ 25-39): Individuals cannot manage daily life independently and need constant care.
• Profound disability (IQ below 25): These individuals are unable to control their lives and require lifelong support.
• Moderate disability (IQ 40-54): These individuals struggle with language and motor skills. They require training in self-care and basic social skills, along with some supervision.

To be classified as having an intellectual disability, a person must: 

• Exhibit significantly sub-average intellectual functioning (IQ below 70).
• Show deficits in adaptive behaviour, which refers to their ability to live independently.
• Have these characteristics observed during the developmental period (ages 0-18).

Individuals with intellectual disabilities vary widely in their abilities, from those who can work with support to those who require institutional care. 

Q22: Analyse the role of genetic influences on intelligence. 
Ans: The role of genetic influences on intelligence is primarily studied through research on twins and adopted children. Key findings include:

• Identical twins raised together show a 90% similarity in intelligence.
• Identical twins raised apart still exhibit a 72% correlation in intelligence.
• Fraternal twins raised together have about a 60% similarity, while siblings raised together show around 50%.
• Siblings raised apart correlate at about 25%.

Further evidence comes from studies of adopted children, indicating: 

• Children's intelligence is often more similar to their biological parents than their adoptive ones.
• As children grow, their intelligence tends to align more closely with that of their adoptive parents.
• Children from disadvantaged backgrounds adopted into better environments often see significant improvements in their intelligence scores.

Overall, psychologists agree that intelligence arises from a complex interaction of heredity (nature) and environment(nurture). While genetics sets a potential range, environmental factors play a crucial role in shaping an individual's intellectual development.

Q23: Do different cultures vary in their understanding and definition of intelligence?
Ans: Culture plays a significant role in shaping how intelligence is understood across different societies. Key insights include:

• Vygotsky's Perspective: Russian psychologist Vygotsky argued that culture provides the social context for individuals to grow and understand their surroundings.
• Sternberg's View: Sternberg suggested that intelligence is influenced by cultural factors, including customs, beliefs, and achievements in various fields.
• Types of Intelligence:
  i) Technical Intelligence: Common in technologically advanced societies, focusing on skills like analysis, observation, and achievement.
  ii) Integrative Intelligence: Predominantly found in cultures like India, emphasising connections with the social environment and holistic understanding.

In Indian culture, the concept of buddhi(meaning intelligence) encompasses: 

• Cognitive Skills: Contextual sensitivity, comprehension, and problem-solving.
• Social Competence: Respect for social order and caring for others.
• Emotional Abilities: Self-regulation, integrity, and good behaviour.
• Entrepreneurial Qualities: Dedication, perseverance, and purposeful action.

In contrast, less technologically developed societies often value social and emotional skills over individual achievement. This highlights the cultural differences in how intelligence is perceived and valued. 

Q24: Not all people have the same intellectual ability. How do individuals' intellectual abilities differ? explain. 
Ans: Individuals differ significantly in their intellectual capabilities, which are generally grouped into two broad categories: those with intellectual disabilities and those who are intellectually gifted.

 Intellectual disabilities 

This category includes individuals who find it difficult to learn even the most basic tasks. To be diagnosed with an intellectual disability, three key criteria must be met:

• IQ Score Below 70: This indicates significantly below-average intellectual functioning.

• Deficits in Adaptive Behaviour: These individuals struggle to carry out everyday tasks and cannot function independently.

• Onset Before Age 18: These limitations must be observed during the developmental period, i.e., before the person reaches 18 years of age.

With appropriate support and specialised training, individuals with intellectual disabilities can show improvement in various life skills. However, some may require institutional care throughout their lives.

The levels of intellectual disability include:

• Mild Intellectual Disability (IQ 55–69): Individuals may be slightly slower than their peers but are capable of holding jobs, managing household responsibilities, and living independently.

• Moderate Intellectual Disability (IQ 40–54): Individuals tend to lag in developing language and motor skills. However, with proper training, they can acquire basic communication, social, and self-care skills.

• Severe Intellectual Disability (IQ 25–39): These individuals are generally unable to manage life on their own and need continuous support.

• Profound Intellectual Disability (IQ below 25): Individuals with this level of disability require lifelong and intensive care, as they are unable to function independently in daily life.

 Intellectually giftedness

On the other end of the spectrum are intellectually gifted individuals, who typically have an IQ above 130. They often exhibit:

• Greater attention spans and enhanced memory.

• A preference for novelty and heightened sensitivity to changes in their environment.

• Early development of advanced language skills.

The study of giftedness began in 1925, with a focus on understanding the potential for exceptional achievement and success among such individuals. The term ‘giftedness’ refers to superior intellectual ability that spans across various domains, whereas ‘talent’ is more specific and relates to excellence in a particular area or skill.

In conclusion, intellectual abilities vary widely among individuals. While some face developmental challenges and require structured support, others demonstrate exceptional potential. Recognising and understanding these differences is essential to offering suitable education, care, and opportunities for all individuals.

Q25: What is the difference between "talent" ", interest", and "intelligence"? How is suitability measured?
Ans: The distinctions between aptitude, interest, and intelligence can be better understood through the following points:

• Aptitude refers to a person’s specific ability or skill in a particular field. It reflects the capability to learn or develop proficiency in an area after receiving appropriate training.
• Interest indicates a personal preference or inclination toward certain activities. However, an individual may show interest in a particular job without necessarily having the required aptitude for it.
• Intelligence represents the general mental ability to comprehend the environment, think logically, and apply available resources effectively. It involves the capacity to grasp and learn quickly.

Measuring Aptitude: Aptitude is assessed through a variety of tests:

• Independent aptitude tests target specific areas like Clerical, Mechanical, Numerical, and Typing Aptitude.
• Test batteries or multiple aptitude tests evaluate abilities across several domains at once.

Some commonly used test batteries include:

• Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT)
• General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB)
• Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB)

Among these, the DAT is frequently used in educational institutions and includes eight subtests:

1. Verbal Reasoning

2. Numerical Reasoning

3. Abstract Reasoning

4. Clerical Speed and Accuracy

5. Mechanical Reasoning

6. Space Relations

7. Spelling

8. Language Usage

Understanding an individual’s aptitude can help anticipate their performance in the right environment with suitable training. For example, someone with strong mechanical aptitude has the potential to succeed in engineering if trained properly.

In conclusion, both aptitude and interest play a key role in achieving success in any area. A person needs both the potential (aptitude) and the motivation (interest) to perform effectively in their chosen field.