Key Concepts: Reshaping India's Political Map | Social Studies (SST) Class 8 PDF Download

Rise and Fall of the Delhi Sultanate

• Founded after Prithviraj Chauhan’s defeat in 1192.
• Ruled by five successive Turkic-Afghan dynasties:
  1. Mamluks (Slave dynasty)
  2. Khiljis
  3. Tughlaqs
  4. Sayyids
  5. Lodis
• Expanded into north and central India through continuous warfare.
• Military efforts involved heavy expenditure on:
  - Weapons
  - Soldier
  - War animals
  - Fortifications and infrastructure
• Marked by violent successions and short reigns (average of ~9 years).
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s ambitious reforms.

The conquest era saw:

• Destruction of temples and seats of learning.
• Iconoclasm (breaking of idols).
• Strict imposition of the jizya tax on non-Muslims.
  

Decline

• Timur’s invasion in 1398 devastated Delhi.
• Weakened the Sultanate, paving the way for regional kingdoms and, later, the rise of the Mughals.

Resistance to the Delhi Sultanate

Resistance to the Delhi Sultanate by regional kingdoms:

• Eastern Gangas (Sun Temple, Konark)
• Musunuri Nayakas (Warangal)
• Hoysalas (later Vijayanagara)
• Bahmani & other Deccan Sultanates
• Rajputs (Mewar, Rana Kumbha, forts like Kumbhalgarh)

The Vijayanagar Empire

• Vijayanagara Empire: Founded in the 14th century by Harihara & Bukka, independent of Delhi.
• Known for Hampi, grand temples and palaces, and strong cultural & military power.

Hampi Ruins

Krishnadevaraya

• Krishnadevaraya (16th century): Expanded the empire, promoted arts, poetry, and scholarship.
• Built grand temples like the Vitthala Temple with musical pillars.
• Welcomed foreign traders (e.g., Portuguese) and maintained strong diplomacy.
• After his death, the empire fragmented following the Battle of Talikota (1565) against the Deccan Sultanates.

The Mughals

• Mughal Empire: Founded in 1526 by Babur after defeating Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat, it introduced gunpowder warfare.
• Babur: The founder of the Mughal Empire, a Turkic-Mongol ruler from Central Asia who appreciated India's wealth and decided to build an empire there.
• Humayun: Babur's son, who struggled to maintain control of the empire but was later helped by Sher Shah Suri, who briefly took over.
• Sher Shah Suri: An Afghan ruler who displaced Humayun temporarily and introduced important reforms before the Mughals regained power.
• Himu (Hemchandra Vikramaditya): A military commander under the Suri regime who briefly captured Delhi but was defeated by Akbar.

The Great Mughal Emperors

Akbar

• Akbar: Ascended at 13, expanded the empire through military strength, alliances, and religious tolerance.
• Abolished jizya, promoted sulh-i-kul, and included regional leaders in court.
• Introduced the mansabdari system and Todar Mal’s land revenue reforms.
• Encouraged cross-cultural learning, translating Sanskrit texts into Persian.

Aurangzeb

• Seized power after violent succession struggles, ruling for almost 49 years.
• Expanded empire to its greatest territorial extent but faced widespread rebellions.
• Reimposed jizya, banned music and dance in courts, and ordered the demolition of temples.
• His austere and religiously strict policies contributed to the decline post his reign.

Resistance to the Mughals

Surge of the Rajputs

• Rajput clans in Mewar and Marwar fiercely resisted Mughal conquest.
• Rajputs: Warrior clans in northwest India, proud of their traditions; they often fought against invading forces from outside the subcontinent to protect their kingdoms.
• Maharana Pratap: A legendary Rajput ruler of Mewar who refused to accept Mughal rule and fought guerrilla warfare against them from the Aravalli hills.Maharana Pratap
• Haldighati (1576): A famous battle between Maharana Pratap's forces and the Mughal army; though outnumbered, Maharana Pratap escaped and continued resistance.
• Guerrilla Warfare: A style of fighting using surprise attacks and knowledge of the local terrain, often employed by smaller groups like Maharana Pratap’s forces to fight bigger armies.

The Ahoms

• Migrated from Myanmar to the Brahmaputra valley, developed the paik system, mobilising locals for military and economic duties.
• Used terrain familiarity and guerrilla tactics to defeat the Mughals, notably at the Battle of Saraighat in 1671.

The Rise of the Sikhs

• Founded by Guru Nanak in the 15th century, it promoted equality and compassion.
• Later, Gurus militarised Sikhism in response to Mughal persecution; the martyrdom of Guru Tegh Bahadur symbolised resistance.
• Guru Gobind Singh formed the Khalsa, a martial brotherhood fighting Mughal oppression.
• Maharaja Ranjit Singh unified Sikh confederacies into a strong empire, resisting Mughal and later British incursions.

Administering India

Administration under the Delhi Sultanate

• The political system is centred on the Sultan as an absolute ruler with a council of ministers.
• The iqta system allocated tax collection to nobles (iqtadars) who maintained armies and forwarded revenue.
• Taxes focused heavily on peasants, often collected with cruelty.

The Mughal administrative framework

• Akbar reorganised the administration, introducing specific roles: 

• The Mansabdari system graded officials who maintained troops and resources; jagirdars were assigned land for revenue.
• Efficient land surveys and a revenue system by Todar Mal increased state stability.
• While Akbar was relatively tolerant, higher positions generally favoured Muslims and people of foreign origin.

People's Lives

• Agriculture was the economic backbone with irrigation expansion and multiple crop cultivation.
• Crafts and textiles thrived alongside shipbuilding, and thriving river and overseas trade linked to ports like Calicut and Surat.
• Trade was facilitated by systems like the hundi, enabling credit and fund transfer across regions.
• Temples acted as social, economic, and religious centres, funding infrastructure and trade.
• Despite economic prosperity, many peasants faced high taxation, leading to land loss and bonded labour.
• Frequent warfare caused displacement, but communities of different religions generally coexisted peacefully.
• Cultural traditions persisted, blending indigenous and foreign influences in art, music, literature, and architecture.

Work of Art showing People's Lives in Mughal era