NCERT Textbook: Metal (Living Craft Traditions of India) | Old & New NCERTs for IAS Preparation (Must Read) - UPSC PDF Download

 Page 1


At the time of Dussehra, Kullu valley comes alive with the
arrival of many mohras (metal plaques of Durga) from
different parts of Himachal Pradesh. These gold and silver
masks were commissioned by the kings in ancient times.
Each village brings its mohra from its local temple to Kullu
in a decorated palki (palanquin). The mohras are then moved
into a huge wooden rath that is pulled by hundreds of
devotees. At the time of Dussehra you can see processions
of these raths as they weave down the mountain. Musicians
accompany each of the processions and the whole Kullu
valley fills with the sound of their long metallic pipes.
There are a variety of pipes, long telescopic ones known
as shanal or karnal and the ëSí-shaped curved trumpet
known as narasingha. These are made by local metal-smiths
who are often attached to the temple.
4 METAL
Wind instruments,
Himachal Pradesh
Page 2


At the time of Dussehra, Kullu valley comes alive with the
arrival of many mohras (metal plaques of Durga) from
different parts of Himachal Pradesh. These gold and silver
masks were commissioned by the kings in ancient times.
Each village brings its mohra from its local temple to Kullu
in a decorated palki (palanquin). The mohras are then moved
into a huge wooden rath that is pulled by hundreds of
devotees. At the time of Dussehra you can see processions
of these raths as they weave down the mountain. Musicians
accompany each of the processions and the whole Kullu
valley fills with the sound of their long metallic pipes.
There are a variety of pipes, long telescopic ones known
as shanal or karnal and the ëSí-shaped curved trumpet
known as narasingha. These are made by local metal-smiths
who are often attached to the temple.
4 METAL
Wind instruments,
Himachal Pradesh
38 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA
The Role of the Blacksmith
Metal craft is one of the most vital traditions of Himachal
Pradesh. Here blacksmiths, carpenters and stone workers
consider themselves a single group. While they maintain
their occupational distinctions, they frequently intermarry.
Carpenters and metalsmiths call themselves Dhimans and
trace their origins back to Vishwakarma.
Blacksmiths are the largest craft group in Himachal
villages and, like all other artisans, they are largely employed
as farm labour. They are also traders who sell their products.
Like many crafts communities in India, their workshops
are in their homes. In Himachal the blacksmiths usually
work from their workshops located on the ground floor of
their homes.
In any village in the world, the blacksmithís importance
springs from the fact that he is indispensable. The lohar
(blacksmith) makes and mends the agricultural implements
that are made of iron and also fashions utensils with
material provided by the customers. In addition, he also
makes tools for other artisans, creates icons and
ornaments, and repairs damaged metal objects.  His
payment usually comes in the traditional way ó he receives
a share of the produce.
Inside the Metal Workerís Studio
The wheelwright was also the blacksmith and the tinker of our
locality. He and his apprentices did all sorts of odd jobs ó
plumbing, carpentry, cabinet-making, forging pots and pans,
overhauling carriages and carts, repairing boats and barges and
a hundred other things. The things that he did not undertake
would make a shorter list than those he did.
We could not imagine a wizardís cavern more
fascinating than our wheelwrightís workshop.
Its furnaces, big one and some smaller ones, were
a great attraction. What interested us most about
these furnaces was the intense glow the coal gave
when the bellows worked. It was also engrossing
to watch the red hot metal bars hammered into
shape. Cascades of sparks flew as from a fountain
of fire. It was like fireworks at the Diwali festival!
It took our breath away to see the bullocks shod
with iron hoofs and the cartwheels fitted with
iron bands and then dipped into water . How the
sizzling steam came out ó vapour coloured by
the light of the furnaces!
ñ SUDHIN N.GHOSE, And Gazelles Leaping
Inside a metal
workerís studio
Page 3


At the time of Dussehra, Kullu valley comes alive with the
arrival of many mohras (metal plaques of Durga) from
different parts of Himachal Pradesh. These gold and silver
masks were commissioned by the kings in ancient times.
Each village brings its mohra from its local temple to Kullu
in a decorated palki (palanquin). The mohras are then moved
into a huge wooden rath that is pulled by hundreds of
devotees. At the time of Dussehra you can see processions
of these raths as they weave down the mountain. Musicians
accompany each of the processions and the whole Kullu
valley fills with the sound of their long metallic pipes.
There are a variety of pipes, long telescopic ones known
as shanal or karnal and the ëSí-shaped curved trumpet
known as narasingha. These are made by local metal-smiths
who are often attached to the temple.
4 METAL
Wind instruments,
Himachal Pradesh
38 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA
The Role of the Blacksmith
Metal craft is one of the most vital traditions of Himachal
Pradesh. Here blacksmiths, carpenters and stone workers
consider themselves a single group. While they maintain
their occupational distinctions, they frequently intermarry.
Carpenters and metalsmiths call themselves Dhimans and
trace their origins back to Vishwakarma.
Blacksmiths are the largest craft group in Himachal
villages and, like all other artisans, they are largely employed
as farm labour. They are also traders who sell their products.
Like many crafts communities in India, their workshops
are in their homes. In Himachal the blacksmiths usually
work from their workshops located on the ground floor of
their homes.
In any village in the world, the blacksmithís importance
springs from the fact that he is indispensable. The lohar
(blacksmith) makes and mends the agricultural implements
that are made of iron and also fashions utensils with
material provided by the customers. In addition, he also
makes tools for other artisans, creates icons and
ornaments, and repairs damaged metal objects.  His
payment usually comes in the traditional way ó he receives
a share of the produce.
Inside the Metal Workerís Studio
The wheelwright was also the blacksmith and the tinker of our
locality. He and his apprentices did all sorts of odd jobs ó
plumbing, carpentry, cabinet-making, forging pots and pans,
overhauling carriages and carts, repairing boats and barges and
a hundred other things. The things that he did not undertake
would make a shorter list than those he did.
We could not imagine a wizardís cavern more
fascinating than our wheelwrightís workshop.
Its furnaces, big one and some smaller ones, were
a great attraction. What interested us most about
these furnaces was the intense glow the coal gave
when the bellows worked. It was also engrossing
to watch the red hot metal bars hammered into
shape. Cascades of sparks flew as from a fountain
of fire. It was like fireworks at the Diwali festival!
It took our breath away to see the bullocks shod
with iron hoofs and the cartwheels fitted with
iron bands and then dipped into water . How the
sizzling steam came out ó vapour coloured by
the light of the furnaces!
ñ SUDHIN N.GHOSE, And Gazelles Leaping
Inside a metal
workerís studio
39 METAL
Patrons of Metal Craft
The patronage of the temple and royal court gave rise to
highly accomplished craftspersons, one generation following
another practising the same skill for centuries.
As time went by, temple and rural art traditions came
closer together. Innumerable bronze figurines cast by rural
metalsmiths can be seen in village shrines and in home
altars even today. These images appear to be timeless.
For our traditional rulers, the nobility and wealthy
landowners, objects made of precious metal were symbolic
manifestations of power. Much of their income from taxes
was converted into treasure (khazana) in the form of objects
made from precious metals and jewellery. It was in
workshops (karkhanas) that goldsmiths and silversmiths,
whether private or public servants, practised their skills
under the patronage and close supervision of their masters.
Some of these objects were made to be presented as gifts
on special occasions such as the public assemblies (durbars)
that formed part of court ritual, while others were only
brought out for specific religious rituals. Still others were
designed for everyday use.
Less well off zamindars followed the example set by the
court. Even the rural population, with little money at its
disposal, copied the customs of their superiors. Whatever
surplus earnings they had was invested by them in silver
ornaments worn by women daily. These proclaimed the
wearerís social and economic status like the beautifully
attired women of Rajasthan.
Mohras are fashioned out
of ashtadhatu, an alloy of
eight metals ó gold, silver,
brass, iron, tin, mercury,
copper and zinc.
The Himachal State
Handicrafts Corporation
has established metal craft
training centres all over
the State to impart
training in bronze casting
and all metal craft
techniques.
Gold Coins, Gupta Period Durbar of Bahadur Shah Zafar
Page 4


At the time of Dussehra, Kullu valley comes alive with the
arrival of many mohras (metal plaques of Durga) from
different parts of Himachal Pradesh. These gold and silver
masks were commissioned by the kings in ancient times.
Each village brings its mohra from its local temple to Kullu
in a decorated palki (palanquin). The mohras are then moved
into a huge wooden rath that is pulled by hundreds of
devotees. At the time of Dussehra you can see processions
of these raths as they weave down the mountain. Musicians
accompany each of the processions and the whole Kullu
valley fills with the sound of their long metallic pipes.
There are a variety of pipes, long telescopic ones known
as shanal or karnal and the ëSí-shaped curved trumpet
known as narasingha. These are made by local metal-smiths
who are often attached to the temple.
4 METAL
Wind instruments,
Himachal Pradesh
38 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA
The Role of the Blacksmith
Metal craft is one of the most vital traditions of Himachal
Pradesh. Here blacksmiths, carpenters and stone workers
consider themselves a single group. While they maintain
their occupational distinctions, they frequently intermarry.
Carpenters and metalsmiths call themselves Dhimans and
trace their origins back to Vishwakarma.
Blacksmiths are the largest craft group in Himachal
villages and, like all other artisans, they are largely employed
as farm labour. They are also traders who sell their products.
Like many crafts communities in India, their workshops
are in their homes. In Himachal the blacksmiths usually
work from their workshops located on the ground floor of
their homes.
In any village in the world, the blacksmithís importance
springs from the fact that he is indispensable. The lohar
(blacksmith) makes and mends the agricultural implements
that are made of iron and also fashions utensils with
material provided by the customers. In addition, he also
makes tools for other artisans, creates icons and
ornaments, and repairs damaged metal objects.  His
payment usually comes in the traditional way ó he receives
a share of the produce.
Inside the Metal Workerís Studio
The wheelwright was also the blacksmith and the tinker of our
locality. He and his apprentices did all sorts of odd jobs ó
plumbing, carpentry, cabinet-making, forging pots and pans,
overhauling carriages and carts, repairing boats and barges and
a hundred other things. The things that he did not undertake
would make a shorter list than those he did.
We could not imagine a wizardís cavern more
fascinating than our wheelwrightís workshop.
Its furnaces, big one and some smaller ones, were
a great attraction. What interested us most about
these furnaces was the intense glow the coal gave
when the bellows worked. It was also engrossing
to watch the red hot metal bars hammered into
shape. Cascades of sparks flew as from a fountain
of fire. It was like fireworks at the Diwali festival!
It took our breath away to see the bullocks shod
with iron hoofs and the cartwheels fitted with
iron bands and then dipped into water . How the
sizzling steam came out ó vapour coloured by
the light of the furnaces!
ñ SUDHIN N.GHOSE, And Gazelles Leaping
Inside a metal
workerís studio
39 METAL
Patrons of Metal Craft
The patronage of the temple and royal court gave rise to
highly accomplished craftspersons, one generation following
another practising the same skill for centuries.
As time went by, temple and rural art traditions came
closer together. Innumerable bronze figurines cast by rural
metalsmiths can be seen in village shrines and in home
altars even today. These images appear to be timeless.
For our traditional rulers, the nobility and wealthy
landowners, objects made of precious metal were symbolic
manifestations of power. Much of their income from taxes
was converted into treasure (khazana) in the form of objects
made from precious metals and jewellery. It was in
workshops (karkhanas) that goldsmiths and silversmiths,
whether private or public servants, practised their skills
under the patronage and close supervision of their masters.
Some of these objects were made to be presented as gifts
on special occasions such as the public assemblies (durbars)
that formed part of court ritual, while others were only
brought out for specific religious rituals. Still others were
designed for everyday use.
Less well off zamindars followed the example set by the
court. Even the rural population, with little money at its
disposal, copied the customs of their superiors. Whatever
surplus earnings they had was invested by them in silver
ornaments worn by women daily. These proclaimed the
wearerís social and economic status like the beautifully
attired women of Rajasthan.
Mohras are fashioned out
of ashtadhatu, an alloy of
eight metals ó gold, silver,
brass, iron, tin, mercury,
copper and zinc.
The Himachal State
Handicrafts Corporation
has established metal craft
training centres all over
the State to impart
training in bronze casting
and all metal craft
techniques.
Gold Coins, Gupta Period Durbar of Bahadur Shah Zafar
40 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA
Did you know that...
For 11,000 years human beings have been fashioning metal for their
use.
? Ore metals are the source of most metals. First the ores are mined
or quarried from beneath the earth, or dredged from lakes and rivers,
then they are crushed and separated, and finally they are refined
and smelted to produce metal.
? By 5000 BCE copper was used to make beads and pins. By 3000
BCE tin was added to copper to produce bronze, a harder metal.
Iron, even harder than bronze, was widely produced by 500 BCE.
? The technology of how to master metals (copper, bronze, iron)
developed independently in various parts of the world.
? By 3000 BCE, most of the gold extracting techniques used today
were already known in Egypt.
? The concept of carats indicates the amount of gold in gold! Nowadays
copper and silver are often added to gold to make it harder. The gold
content in this is known as carats.
? More than half of the gold mined
with so much labour, returns to
the earthóburied in bank vaults!
Page 5


At the time of Dussehra, Kullu valley comes alive with the
arrival of many mohras (metal plaques of Durga) from
different parts of Himachal Pradesh. These gold and silver
masks were commissioned by the kings in ancient times.
Each village brings its mohra from its local temple to Kullu
in a decorated palki (palanquin). The mohras are then moved
into a huge wooden rath that is pulled by hundreds of
devotees. At the time of Dussehra you can see processions
of these raths as they weave down the mountain. Musicians
accompany each of the processions and the whole Kullu
valley fills with the sound of their long metallic pipes.
There are a variety of pipes, long telescopic ones known
as shanal or karnal and the ëSí-shaped curved trumpet
known as narasingha. These are made by local metal-smiths
who are often attached to the temple.
4 METAL
Wind instruments,
Himachal Pradesh
38 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA
The Role of the Blacksmith
Metal craft is one of the most vital traditions of Himachal
Pradesh. Here blacksmiths, carpenters and stone workers
consider themselves a single group. While they maintain
their occupational distinctions, they frequently intermarry.
Carpenters and metalsmiths call themselves Dhimans and
trace their origins back to Vishwakarma.
Blacksmiths are the largest craft group in Himachal
villages and, like all other artisans, they are largely employed
as farm labour. They are also traders who sell their products.
Like many crafts communities in India, their workshops
are in their homes. In Himachal the blacksmiths usually
work from their workshops located on the ground floor of
their homes.
In any village in the world, the blacksmithís importance
springs from the fact that he is indispensable. The lohar
(blacksmith) makes and mends the agricultural implements
that are made of iron and also fashions utensils with
material provided by the customers. In addition, he also
makes tools for other artisans, creates icons and
ornaments, and repairs damaged metal objects.  His
payment usually comes in the traditional way ó he receives
a share of the produce.
Inside the Metal Workerís Studio
The wheelwright was also the blacksmith and the tinker of our
locality. He and his apprentices did all sorts of odd jobs ó
plumbing, carpentry, cabinet-making, forging pots and pans,
overhauling carriages and carts, repairing boats and barges and
a hundred other things. The things that he did not undertake
would make a shorter list than those he did.
We could not imagine a wizardís cavern more
fascinating than our wheelwrightís workshop.
Its furnaces, big one and some smaller ones, were
a great attraction. What interested us most about
these furnaces was the intense glow the coal gave
when the bellows worked. It was also engrossing
to watch the red hot metal bars hammered into
shape. Cascades of sparks flew as from a fountain
of fire. It was like fireworks at the Diwali festival!
It took our breath away to see the bullocks shod
with iron hoofs and the cartwheels fitted with
iron bands and then dipped into water . How the
sizzling steam came out ó vapour coloured by
the light of the furnaces!
ñ SUDHIN N.GHOSE, And Gazelles Leaping
Inside a metal
workerís studio
39 METAL
Patrons of Metal Craft
The patronage of the temple and royal court gave rise to
highly accomplished craftspersons, one generation following
another practising the same skill for centuries.
As time went by, temple and rural art traditions came
closer together. Innumerable bronze figurines cast by rural
metalsmiths can be seen in village shrines and in home
altars even today. These images appear to be timeless.
For our traditional rulers, the nobility and wealthy
landowners, objects made of precious metal were symbolic
manifestations of power. Much of their income from taxes
was converted into treasure (khazana) in the form of objects
made from precious metals and jewellery. It was in
workshops (karkhanas) that goldsmiths and silversmiths,
whether private or public servants, practised their skills
under the patronage and close supervision of their masters.
Some of these objects were made to be presented as gifts
on special occasions such as the public assemblies (durbars)
that formed part of court ritual, while others were only
brought out for specific religious rituals. Still others were
designed for everyday use.
Less well off zamindars followed the example set by the
court. Even the rural population, with little money at its
disposal, copied the customs of their superiors. Whatever
surplus earnings they had was invested by them in silver
ornaments worn by women daily. These proclaimed the
wearerís social and economic status like the beautifully
attired women of Rajasthan.
Mohras are fashioned out
of ashtadhatu, an alloy of
eight metals ó gold, silver,
brass, iron, tin, mercury,
copper and zinc.
The Himachal State
Handicrafts Corporation
has established metal craft
training centres all over
the State to impart
training in bronze casting
and all metal craft
techniques.
Gold Coins, Gupta Period Durbar of Bahadur Shah Zafar
40 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA
Did you know that...
For 11,000 years human beings have been fashioning metal for their
use.
? Ore metals are the source of most metals. First the ores are mined
or quarried from beneath the earth, or dredged from lakes and rivers,
then they are crushed and separated, and finally they are refined
and smelted to produce metal.
? By 5000 BCE copper was used to make beads and pins. By 3000
BCE tin was added to copper to produce bronze, a harder metal.
Iron, even harder than bronze, was widely produced by 500 BCE.
? The technology of how to master metals (copper, bronze, iron)
developed independently in various parts of the world.
? By 3000 BCE, most of the gold extracting techniques used today
were already known in Egypt.
? The concept of carats indicates the amount of gold in gold! Nowadays
copper and silver are often added to gold to make it harder. The gold
content in this is known as carats.
? More than half of the gold mined
with so much labour, returns to
the earthóburied in bank vaults!
41 METAL
Crafting Metals
Human cultures around the world have a long history of
experimentation and expression using alloys like brass and
bronze, and precious metals like gold and silver, and in
more recent human history using iron and steel.
We have created countless objects from different metals,
from tiny coins to buildings, pots and pans to timeless
images of gods and goddesses.
Materials and Processes
Other than silver, the metals used in our country for
craftwork are brass, copper and bell-metal. Brass is an
alloy of copper and zinc, bell-metal is a mixture of copper
and tin.
The shaping of an object is done either by beating the
ingot or sheet metal to the approximate shape with a
hammer while it is hot, or by pouring the molten metal in
a mould that is made of clay for ordinary ware and of wax
for more delicate objects. The beating process is preferred
particularly for bell-metal and copperware as it is supposed
to make the object more durable. Further, tempering is
done by heating the article till it is red-hot, and then dipping
it in cold water. If it turns black in this process, light
hammering rectifies it.
Soldering is used to join
two parts of an article
when it is manufactured
in more than one piece.
Joining together is done by
using a metal alloy which
the artisan prepares.
Commonly used
traditional metal vessels