Period 6:1865-1898 | AP United States History - Grade 9 PDF Download

The Age of Invention and Economic Growth

• Thomas A. Edison's Workshop: Thomas A. Edison was a prominent inventor known for his innovations.
• Edison's inventions revolutionized various industries, such as the electric power industry with the development of the light bulb.
• His workshop was a hub of creativity and innovation, where he and his team worked on numerous projects.
• One of his most famous inventions from the workshop was the phonograph, which could record and play back sound.

Thomas Edison's Impact on Technology

Early Years and Innovations

• Born in 1876 in Menlo Park, New Jersey, Thomas Edison began his journey as an inventor.
• Throughout his career, he introduced groundbreaking inventions that shaped the course of the century.

Light Bulb Invention

• Edison's most renowned creation was the invention of the practical light bulb.
• This innovation revolutionized daily life by enabling work and activities to continue beyond sundown.

Power Plant Development

• His pioneering efforts in power plant development were vital for the widespread adoption of electricity.
• These advancements not only ensured wider availability of electricity but also led to its diverse applications in industries and homes.

Impact on Society

Age of Invention

• The late 19th century, often termed the Age of Invention, witnessed remarkable technological progress led by innovators like Edison.
• These advancements ushered in a new era of opportunities, particularly in mass production, transforming various aspects of society.

Advances in Mass Production

• Technological advancements led to increased opportunities for mass production.

Economic Growth

Economic growth during this period was characterized by:

• Economy experiencing rapid expansion.
• Individuals known as "captains of industry" or "robber barons" amassing immense wealth and power.
• Establishment and control of new manufacturing ventures.

Industrialization

Industrialization involved the introduction of more efficient machinery in manufacturing processes, resulting in:

• Improved economies of scale.
• Decreased cost per unit of production.

Key Concepts in Industrialization

• Assembly Line Production: This method involves employees carrying out repetitive tasks to enhance efficiency. However, it also brings about hazardous working conditions and prolonged working hours.
• Corporate Consolidation: Large corporations emerge due to economies of scale and a lack of government oversight. This process often leads to monopolies and holding companies.
• Horizontal Integration: Smaller companies within the same industry are merged to create a larger entity, either through legal acquisitions or illicit means.
• Vertical Integration: In this scenario, a single company acquires all stages of production, from raw materials to the final product. Despite this, competition is still present in the market.
• Issues with Consolidation: The amalgamation of companies often necessitates substantial capital, triggering financial crises, bank collapses, public discontent, and governmental intervention in the form of antitrust laws.

Growth and Challenges

• Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890: This legislation prohibited any action that restrained trade. However, its ambiguous language allowed the Supreme Court to interpret it in favor of businesses, as seen in cases like U.S. v. E. C. Knight Co. in 1895.
• Gospel of Wealth: Advocated by Andrew Carnegie, this ideology promotes the idea that wealth should be utilized for societal improvement rather than solely personal enrichment.

Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890

• Law enacted in 1890 to prevent "restraint of trade" combinations, but its wording was vague, leading to pro-business interpretations by the Supreme Court.

U.S. v. E. C. Knight Co. 1895

• In 1895, the court's decision in the case of U.S. v. E. C. Knight Co. stated that despite controlling 98% of sugar refining plants, E. C. Knight did not violate the Sherman Antitrust Act.

Gospel of Wealth

• The Gospel of Wealth, advocated by Andrew Carnegie, promotes the idea that wealth should be utilized for societal improvement rather than solely personal gain.

Factories and City Life

• During the industrial era, factories emerged as key components of urban life, transforming cities and impacting society significantly.

Impact of Factories in Urban Areas

• Factories emerged in urban centers during the 19th century to lower labor expenses and boost profits.
• Employment at these factories predominantly included women, children, and fresh immigrants seeking livelihood opportunities.
• Consequently, urban areas grappled with poverty, crime, illnesses, and a severe shortage of habitable dwellings.
• Working conditions within factories were perilous, devoid of any form of insurance or worker compensations.
• The affluent middle class migrated to more upscale neighborhoods, leaving behind a populace mainly composed of immigrants and migrants.

Immigration and Ethnic Dynamics

• A significant influx of immigrants, primarily from Southern and Eastern Europe commencing in 1880, characterized urban demographics.
• Distinct ethnic enclaves and overcrowded tenements were prevalent, fostering prejudice and restricting job prospects for minorities.

Challenges in Urban Governance and Social Services

• Municipal administrations were largely ineffective, necessitating the provision of welfare services by churches, private charities, and ethnic associations, or via corrupt political figures.
• Political bosses like William "Boss" Tweed of Tammany Hall in New York City exploited their authority for personal gain, engaging in corrupt practices.

Labor Unions and Workers' Rights

• The distress prevalent in urban settings prompted the establishment of labor unions aimed at enhancing laborers' conditions.
• However, these unions encountered staunch opposition from governmental bodies, businesses, and legal systems.
• The Knights of Labor, founded in 1869, championed causes such as an eight-hour workday, equitable pay, child labor regulations, safety standards, federal taxation, and more.

Political Bosses and Labor Unions in the 19th Century

• Bosses assisted underprivileged individuals in securing housing, employment, citizenship, and suffrage, albeit resorting to illicit methods.
• William "Boss" Tweed, a prominent figure in Tammany Hall, New York City, infamously engaged in embezzlement and corruption, amassing millions through illicit means.
• Widespread urban suffering spurred the emergence of labor unions aiming to enhance laborers' working conditions.
• Labor unions, perceived as radical entities, encountered resistance from governmental bodies, corporations, and the judiciary.
• The Knights of Labor, established in 1869, stood as one of the earliest national labor unions.
• Key objectives of the Knights of Labor encompassed advocating for an 8-hour workday, wage equality, child labor prohibitions, workplace safety regulations, federal taxation, among other reforms.

William "Boss" Tweed

• Illustrative Example: Bosses like Tweed provided essential services to the impoverished but at a grave ethical cost, tarnishing their legacies.

Knights of Labor (1869)

• Elaboration: The Knights of Labor's aspirations reflected the era's labor movement, striving for fundamental labor reforms to enhance workers' lives.

Knights of Labor

• Advocated for using arbitration instead of strikes
• Shifted towards more violent methods to achieve their goals
• Lost popularity due to violence and being linked with political radicalism
• Decline exacerbated by Terrence Powderly's leadership, failed strikes, and the Haymarket Square Riot
• Public perception viewed unions affiliated with Knights of Labor as subversive and violent

Terrence Powderly

• Played a significant role in the decline of Knights of Labor

Homestead Steel Strike

• Employees protested against wage reductions and the management's refusal to allow union formation
• Factory manager Henry Clay Frick responded by locking out workers, hiring replacements, and bringing in Pinkerton Detective force
• A violent confrontation between Pinkertons and workers resulted in casualties and Pinkertons' retreat
• The Pennsylvania state militia intervened to end the strike, after which Frick recruited new employees

The Homestead Strike

• Factory manager Henry Clay Frick initiated a lockout of workers, hired replacements, and enlisted the Pinkerton Detective force to suppress unrest.
• A violent confrontation between Pinkertons and workers ensued, resulting in casualties and the retreat of the Pinkertons.
• The Pennsylvania state militia intervened to end the strike, following which Frick recruited new workers to resume operations.

The Pullman Palace Car Factory Strike

• Employees at the Pullman Palace Car Factory experienced reduced wages and increased housing expenses.
• The American Railway Union (ARU) supported the strike, leading 250,000 railway workers to participate, causing the shutdown of rail services in 27 states.
• ARU President Eugene Debs defied a court order to cease the strike, resulting in his conviction and imprisonment. Upon release, Debs assumed leadership of the American Socialist Party.

Debs and American Socialist Party

• After being convicted and serving jail time, Debs emerged as a prominent figure and assumed leadership within the American Socialist Party.

American Federation of Labor (AFL)

• Under the leadership of Samuel Gompers, the AFL concentrated on advocating for fundamental labor concerns such as improved wages and shorter work hours.
• The AFL was an exclusive confederation of trade unions that notably omitted unskilled laborers from its membership.
• Furthermore, the AFL maintained a policy of not accepting immigrants, Black individuals, and women into its ranks.

Charitable Middle-Class Organizations

• These organizations actively engaged in influencing local governments to institute regulations pertaining to building safety, sanitation, and public education.
• They were instrumental in establishing and residing in settlement houses located in impoverished neighborhoods.
• These community centers provided essential services like education, childcare, and cultural events.
• One notable figure in this movement was Jane Addams, who founded Hull House in Chicago and was honored with the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931.

Settlement Houses and Social Reforms

• Founded and resided in settlement houses located in impoverished neighborhoods.
• Established community centers that offered educational opportunities, childcare services, and cultural activities.
• Jane Addams, known for Hull House in Chicago, was honored with the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931.

Impact on Society

The initiatives led to a transformation in people's lives:

• Wealthier and middle-class individuals experienced improvements, contrasted with the struggles of the poor.
• Increased access to luxuries, leisure activities, and entertainment like sports, theater, vaudeville, and movies.
• The newspaper industry expanded notably with key figures such as Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst.
• Sensational reporting and yellow journalism gained popularity during this period.

Advancements in the South

Progress in the Machine Age:

• Jim Crow Laws and Other Developments in the Southern region.

Advances in the Machine Age

• Significant impact on cities in the northern regions

South During Machine Age

• Agriculture remained the predominant form of labor
• Introduction of textile mills and tobacco processing facilities
• Majority of Southern population continued as farmers

Postwar Economics in the South

• Many farmers compelled to sell their land
• Wealthy landowners acquired and amalgamated land into larger farms
• Landless farmers, both Black and white, were pushed into sharecropping
• Implementation of the crop lien system aimed at perpetuating the indebtedness of the poor
• Exploitative landlords maintained the impoverished in a state akin to slavery

Booker T. Washington's Atlanta Compromise Speech

• Unscrupulous landlords exploited the poor, keeping them in a state akin to slavery.
• Booker T. Washington's speech emphasized:
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  • Expressing hope for closer relations with the white community.
  • Pledging patient and sympathetic assistance to the Black community.
  • Advocating for the greater good by eradicating racial hostilities.
  • Urging strict adherence to justice and the law.

Jim Crow Laws

• During the Jim Crow era:
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  • The federal government's influence diminished significantly.
  • Various discriminatory laws were enacted by towns and cities.
  • The Supreme Court's decisions included:
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    • Stating that the Fourteenth Amendment didn't protect Black individuals from private discrimination.
    • Reversing the Civil Rights Act of 1875 in 1883.
    • Ruling in 1896 that "separate but equal" facilities were legally permissible.

Supreme Court Decisions

• Supreme Court ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment did not provide protection against private discrimination.
• In 1883, the Court overturned the Civil Rights Act of 1875.
• In 1896, the Supreme Court declared that "separate but equal" facilities were legally permissible.

Integration and Equal Rights

• For many Black individuals, integration and equal rights seemed like a distant aspiration.
• Booker T. Washington, who was born into slavery, understood that white society did not readily accept Black people as equals.
• He advocated for economic independence as a means to enhance the status of Black individuals.

Booker T. Washington's Approach

• Washington founded the Tuskegee Institute to provide vocational and industrial training for Black individuals.
• Although criticized for being too accommodating, he believed in gradual progress towards equal rights.

Key Concepts

• Founded Tuskegee Institute for vocational and industrial training for Black people
• Accused of being an accommodationist
• Refused to press for immediate equal rights
• Reality of his time set his goals

Booker T. Washington vs. W. E. B. Du Bois

Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. Du Bois were prominent figures in the civil rights movement, each with distinct ideologies and approaches:

• Washington's Atlanta Exposition speech: Washington delivered a significant speech that was perceived by Du Bois as submissive.
• Washington viewed as submissive by Du Bois: Du Bois criticized Washington for his perceived submissive stance.
• Du Bois referred to speech as "The Atlanta Compromise": Du Bois labeled Washington's speech as a compromise that he didn't agree with.

The Railroads and Developments in the West

Detailed advancements in railroad infrastructure and western development during the time period:

Ranchers and Miners in the Western Frontier

• Ranchers and miners played crucial roles in the growth of the western frontier.
• Ranchers herded their cattle across the plains and deserts, often disregarding property rights and Native American land claims.
• Miners searched for valuable minerals and sold mining rights to companies upon discovery.

Impact of the Transcontinental Railroad

• President Lincoln's vision of a Transcontinental Railroad (1863-1869) aimed to unite the nation geographically.
• Despite public funding, railroad owners resisted government regulation, shaping the industry's development.
• Railroad activities, including large-scale buffalo hunts, transformed local economies and ecosystems.
• The rail network spurred urban growth, enabling quicker travel and the exchange of ideas and technology from the East.

Settlement and Agricultural Development

• The establishment of North Dakota, South Dakota, Washington, Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho states by 1889 marked a significant milestone.
• The 1890 census findings supported Turner's Frontier Thesis, stressing the frontier's impact on American society and democracy.
• Farming and ranching dominated the Great Plains, supported by innovations like new machinery and mail-order systems.
• Government initiatives such as the Homestead Act and Morrill Land-Grant Act aimed to entice settlers and foster Western growth.

Challenges and Conservation Efforts

• The relocation of the Nez Perce tribe to Idaho and Chief Joseph's resistance highlighted conflicts over land and resources.
• As families and businesses migrated westward, conservation groups and the government advocated for natural resource preservation.
• The establishment of the U.S. Fish Commission led to the protection of fish species and the creation of National Parks and Forest Services.

Summary Notes

• Rails facilitated the standardization of timekeeping through "railroad time" and the introduction of time zones.
• By 1889, North Dakota, South Dakota, Washington, Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho had all achieved statehood.
• The 1890 census findings led to Turner's Frontier Thesis, which posited that the frontier played a crucial role in shaping American identity, fostering democracy, and acting as a release valve for urban pressures.
• In the Great Plains, farming and ranching emerged as primary occupations, supported by advancements in farm machinery and the rise of mail-order retailing.
• The Homestead Act and the Morrill Land-Grant Act were enacted by the government to encourage settlement and foster development in the Western regions.
• The Homestead Act and the Morrill Land-Grant Act fueled the growth of agricultural science, transforming it into a significant industry in the United States.

Turner's Frontier Thesis

• Turner's Frontier Thesis highlighted the pivotal role of the frontier in shaping American society and values.

The Homestead Act

• The Homestead Act aimed to incentivize settlement and agricultural development in the West.

Morrill Land-Grant Act

• The Morrill Land-Grant Act was instrumental in promoting education and agricultural research across the country.

Native American Resistance in the West

• The Nez Perce tribe, under Chief Joseph's leadership, resisted forced migration from Oregon to an Idaho reservation. This relocation was a result of government policies that sought to consolidate Native American populations.

Protection of Natural Resources

• As families and corporations moved westward, there was a growing need to safeguard natural resources. In response, government entities and conservation groups advocated for increased protection measures.

Establishment of U.S. Fish Commission

• The U.S. Fish Commission was founded with the primary objective of preserving fish species. This initiative eventually contributed to the establishment of National Parks and Forest Services, highlighting the importance of environmental conservation on a national scale.

National Politics

During the Gilded Age of American Politics, there was a significant emphasis on economic growth and industrialization. This era was characterized by rapid economic development, technological advancements, and increased immigration, shaping the political landscape of the United States.

Era between Reconstruction and 1900

• A period in American history occurring between the Reconstruction era and the year 1900.
• Coined by the famous writer Mark Twain.
• Although America seemed prosperous during this time, this wealth was often at the expense of many individuals living in poverty.
• The political landscape presented a facade of prosperity while concealing widespread corruption and patronage.
• Cities were predominantly controlled by political machines rather than municipal governments.
• Large corporations wielded significant power, influencing Congress through the purchase of votes and exploiting consumers.
• Workers faced minimal protection from the avarice of their employers.
• While the Presidents of this era were typically not corrupt, they were often considered weak in their leadership.

Reform Efforts

• Several Presidents, including Rutherford B. Hayes, James Garfield, and Chester A. Arthur, focused on reforming civil service practices to combat corruption.
• Grover Cleveland advocated for limited government interference in the economy.
• Benjamin Harrison and his supporters enacted significant legislative measures, such as the meat inspection act and the prohibition of lotteries and battleships.

Benjamin Harrison

• Activism led to public discomfort and return of Cleveland to White House
• Regulating Business and Government:

Regulating Business and Government:

• First attempts at regulation in response to widespread corruption
• States imposed railroad regulations due to price gouging
• 1877 Supreme Court upheld state law regulating railroads in Munn v. Illinois
• Precedent for regulation in public interest established
• 1887 Congress passed first federal regulatory law (Interstate Commerce Act)

1887

• Establishment of the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to oversee and regulate railroad operations.
• The ICC remained active until it was deregulated during the Reagan administration in the 1980s.

Women's Suffrage

• Women's suffrage emerged as a significant political concern in the United States.
• Spearheaded by key figure Susan B. Anthony.

• Susan B. Anthony

  • Anthony persistently presented a bill to Congress annually advocating for women's suffrage.
  • The movement intensified with the American Suffrage Association pushing for state suffrage amendments.
  • Partial victories were achieved in securing voting rights on educational matters.
  • Ultimately, women attained the right to vote with the passing of the 19th Amendment in 1920, marking a milestone fifty years after male suffrage.

The Silver Issue and the Populist Movement

Post-Civil War Era:

• Increased production in both industrial and agricultural sectors
• Decrease in prices caused by oversupply
• Farmers encountered difficulties with fixed payments on long-term debts
• Farmers advocated for an increase in the money supply to facilitate easier payments and counter inflation
• Banks opposed the proposal, advocating for a gold-backed money supply
• Farmers proposed the liberal use of silver coins, a plan backed by miners in the West and farmers in the Midwest and South
• The issue was characterized by regional conflicts and class tensions

Historical Movements Overview

• Issue involving regionalism and class conflicts

Grange Movement and Farmers' Alliances

• Founded in 1867, the Grange Movement quickly gained momentum, boasting over a million members by 1875.
• Cooperatives were established within the movement to facilitate collective purchasing of machinery and joint selling of crops.
• The movement engaged in political advocacy, endorsing specific legislative measures to benefit farmers.
• Eventually, the Grange Movement evolved into the Farmers' Alliances, which notably encouraged and embraced women's participation in politics.
• Over time, the Farmers' Alliances transformed into the People's Party, serving as the political extension of the broader Populist movement.
• Various subgroups emerged within the farming community, such as Las Gorras Blancas and the Colored Farmers' Alliance, to address specific issues faced by minority farmers.

People's Party

• Formed in the 1892 convention known as the Omaha Platform
• Advocated for silver coinage, government control of railroads and telegraphs, a graduated income tax, direct election of senators, and shorter workdays
• James Weaver, the party's 1892 presidential candidate, garnered over 1 million votes
• Populist goals gained traction during the financial turmoil of 1893-1897

Granger Laws

• Enacted in the 1870s and 1880s to regulate the operations of railroads

Populist Movement

• 1896 Populists supported Democratic nominee William Jennings Bryan.
• Bryan campaigned for the free coinage of silver, aiming to reduce the influence of northern banking interests.
• Republicans sided with major corporations, with McKinley benefiting from substantial corporate funding.
• Bryan's defeat in the election marked a decline in the Populist movement, coinciding with economic improvements.

Foreign Policy: The Tariff and Imperialism

• Pre-Civil War foreign policy was influenced by economic considerations.

American Economic History

• Most Americans relied on farming as their primary source of income before the introduction of federal income tax in 1913.
• Before the 16th Amendment in 1913, there was no federal income tax in the United States.
• In 1913, the implementation of the 16th Amendment introduced federal income tax.
• The imposition of tariffs has been a significant point of contention in American economic history.

Tariffs in American History

• The Tariff of Abominations in 1828 sparked the Nullification Crisis during Andrew Jackson's presidency.
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  • This tariff, which caused significant displeasure, led to a political crisis during Jackson's administration.
• Following the Civil War, tariffs played a dominant role in national politics.
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  • Industrialists advocated for high tariffs to safeguard domestic industries, while farmers and laborers suffered from the repercussions.
  • Differing political parties held contrasting views on tariff policies, with Democrats favoring lower tariffs and Republicans supporting high protective tariffs.

Tariff Laws

• Republicans supported high protective tariffs to protect American industries.
• The McKinley Tariff of 1890 significantly increased duties on imported goods by almost 50%.
• The Wilson-Gorman Tariff of 1894 was similar to the McKinley Tariff.
• The issue of tariffs was a major topic of debate in Congress and influenced foreign relations.

Spanish-American War

• The Wilson-Gorman Tariff was considered one of the contributing factors to the Spanish-American War.

Theodore Roosevelt

• During the Spanish-American War, Theodore Roosevelt served as the Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1898.
• He played a crucial role by ordering the U.S. Pacific Fleet to the Philippines and leading a volunteer regiment in Cuba.

1898

• Ordered U.S. Pacific Fleet to Philippines, then led volunteer regiment in Cuba

Machine Age and American Production

• American production capacity expanded quickly.
• America sought new markets abroad due to increased nationalism and the quest for new markets.

Expansionism & Imperialism

• William H. Seward established a precedent for increased American involvement in the Western Hemisphere.
• American businesses flourished by developing markets and production in Latin America, acquiring political influence in the region.
• Expansionism, focusing on business in various regions, garnered widespread American support, while imperialism, involving control of foreign territories, sparked more debate.

Expansionism and Imperialism

• Expansionism, which involves businesses expanding into different regions, garners more widespread support among Americans. In contrast, imperialism, characterized by the control of one country over another, tends to be more contentious.

The Influence of Sea Power

• The concept of the Influence of Sea Power was significantly propelled by Captain Alfred T. Mahan's influential book titled "The Influence of Sea Power Upon History" in 1890.

Key Points:

• Mahan's book popularized the notion of the New Navy, emphasizing the critical role of naval strength in ensuring the success of foreign trade.
• For a flourishing foreign trade, nations relied on securing access to foreign ports, establishing colonies, and maintaining a formidable navy.
• Following the modernization of its naval fleet, the United States shifted its focus towards acquiring territories beyond its borders.

U.S. Interest in Hawaii

• The United States displayed a keen interest in Hawaii, indicating a broader trend of American involvement in strategic locations during this period.

American Expansionism in the Late 19th Century

• Background of American Interest in Hawaii

  The United States was drawn to Hawaii due to its strategic location along trade routes to Asia.

• American Influence in Hawaii

  In the 1870s, American sugar producers initiated trade with the Hawaiian population, marking the beginning of American involvement in the islands.

• Economic Impact on Hawaii

  The Hawaiian economy suffered a significant downturn in the 1890s as a result of U.S. tariffs and heavy reliance on trade with the United States.

• Overthrow of the Hawaiian Monarchy

  A minority group of white residents orchestrated the overthrow of the native government, leading to Hawaii's annexation by the United States. This move sparked tensions with Japan, given that a substantial portion of Hawaii's population had Japanese heritage.

• Spanish-American War and its Ramifications

  The sinking of the USS Maine in Havana harbor triggered the conflict between the United States and Spain. Following the war, the U.S. succeeded in driving Spain out of Cuba and the Philippines, acquiring these territories through the Treaty of Paris.

• Philippine Annexation Debate

  The control of the Philippines raised a heated debate regarding whether to annex the territory or grant it independence. Proponents of annexation argued that it was necessary to prevent European colonization and to fulfill a perceived moral duty to "Christianize and civilize" the Filipino population.

• Resolution and Independence

  Despite initial annexation, the Philippines eventually gained independence in 1946 after a prolonged period of conflict and negotiation.

• Legal Status of Acquired Territories

  The question of whether the U.S. Constitution applied to newly acquired territories was settled through the Insular Cases, which determined that Congress could govern these regions as it saw fit, without necessarily extending full constitutional rights.

• McKinley's Open Door Policy

  Through the Open Door Policy, championed by President McKinley, the United States aimed to secure access to Asian markets, furthering its economic and strategic interests in the region.

Key Historical Events

• Spain handed over the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam to the United States as per the Treaty of Paris.
• The United States initially declared it would not take control of Cuba as per the Teller Amendment, but later influenced Cuba to include the Platt Amendment in its constitution.
• The Platt Amendment granted the United States authority over Cuba's foreign affairs until U.S. troops withdrew in 1934 during Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidency.
• The issue of whether the Philippines should be annexed or granted independence became a critical concern.

Arguments for Annexation

• Some advocated for annexation of the Philippines based on concerns that European powers might colonize the region and a perceived moral duty to "Christianize and civilize" the Filipino population.

Arguments against Annexation

• Opponents of annexation argued for promoting independence and democratic ideals, highlighting parallels between the United States and the British rulers they had previously rebelled against.

Senate Decision and Filipino Response

• The U.S. Senate narrowly voted in favor of annexing the Philippines. However, Filipino nationalists resisted through a guerrilla warfare campaign.

Summary of Historical Events

• During the period under consideration, the United States utilized harsh methods to suppress rebellions, causing harm to the civilian population.
• In 1946, the United States officially granted independence to the Philippines.
• An important legal debate emerged regarding the status of native inhabitants in newly acquired territories, with the question "Does the Constitution follow the flag?"
• Through the Insular Cases, the Supreme Court decided that the Constitution did not automatically apply to new territories, giving Congress the authority to govern each overseas possession as it deemed fit.
• McKinley's Open Door Policy was a strategy employed by America to access markets in Asia.

McKinley's Open Door Policy

The Open Door Policy, advocated by McKinley, aimed to ensure equal trading opportunities in China for all nations involved.

The Legal Debate

The legal quandary surrounding the application of the Constitution to newly acquired territories raised crucial questions about governance and the rights of native populations.