Research Tool, Sampling and Writing Proposal | Crash Course for UGC NET Education PDF Download

Part B -Research: Tool, Sampling and Writing Proposal

Tools of Data Collection

The collection of data is of paramount importance in the conduct of research. The sampling is the act, process or technique of selecting a suitable sample or representative part of a population for the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the whole population.

The instruments that are employed to collect new facts or to explore new fields are called tools. It is of vital importance to select suitable instruments and tools. As for any research study, the researcher has to collect data and on the basis of that data, he draws conclusions and arrives at generalisations. These conclusions and generalisations will be correct and valid, if the data is methodically collected. For collecting reliable and valid data, one needs reliable and valid tools and techniques of data collection. The researcher has to select tools and techniques of data collection, carefully and judiciously. He/she might make use of standardised readymade tools or may develop his/her own tools, ensuring that the tools developed are reliable and valid, so that the data obtained through these tools are also reliable and valid.

Data collection tools are very helpful because they provide a picture of your class/work environment. The goal for using tools is to help the researcher to clarify information, process knowledge and identify opportunities for continuous improvement. These are the instruments used to collect information, for use in performance assessment, self-evaluation and external evaluation.

Tools of data collection are instruments, like rating scale, checklist, questionnaire attitude scale, etc. Whereas, the techniques of data collection are the processes,

through which data are obtained such as interviews, observations, etc. Each research tool is appropriate in a given situation, to accomplish a specific purpose. These tools should be used together or in combination, as they supplement the work of each other. J W Best, an author of Research in Education commented that like the tools in the carpenter box, each is appropriate in a given situation, to accomplish a particular purpose. Each data collecting device has both merits and demerits. However, for effective results, each tool has its own significance. It must be used according to the situation.

Criteria of a Good Tool

Following are the criteria of a good tool-

Validity

Each tool of evaluation has specific purposes. Therefore, the foremost consideration one must look for, while choosing a tool is the purpose for which it is being used, that is the tool being used, should be valid. Thus, a tool is valid, if it serves the purpose for which it is designed.

According to Stanley and Hopkings, "The validity of a measures how well it fulfils the function, for which it is being used and the degree to which it is capable of achieving certain aims".

Therefore, the concept of validity of a test is chiefly a concern for the basic honesty of the test honesty, in the sense of doing, what are promises to do.

Validity can be divided into five categories and they are:

(i)

Content Validity A systematic evaluation of the test content, to determine whether it covers a representative sample of the behaviour domain or not to be measured.

(ii)

Criterion Related Validity This approach entails detecting the presence of one or more criteria, considered to represent traits or construct of interest.

(iii)

Construct Validity It refers to the limit to which operationalization of a construct, do actually measure what the theory says to do.

(iv)

Face Validity It refers to an estimate of the operationalisation and to see whether or not on its face, it seems like a good translation of the construct.

(v)

Factorial Validity It refers to the validity of the instrument's factor structure, most frequently assessed by factor analysis.

Reliability

It is concerned with the question of 'accuracy' with which the 'what' is measured. It refers to the results obtained with an evaluation instrument and not to the instrument itself. An evaluation tool may have a large number of different reliabilities, depending on the groups of subjects and situations of use. Reliability is a necessary, but not a sufficient condition for validity.

Ohjectivity

It is an important criteria of a good evaluation tool. A tool is objective if it makes for the elimination of the scorer's personal opinion i.e. bias or judgement. It is an honest opinion based on facts, evidence, without influence of extraneous considerations, the evaluator's personal judgement may also be accepted.

A tool is objective, if it gives the same score even when different scorers score the item. Thus, objectivity in scoring may be considered as consistency, in scoring by different scorers.

Types of Tools

According to JC Agrawal, who has authored many books on education and research, the tools of research has been classified into following types:

Different types of tools are­

(i)

Inquiry forms

•

Rating scale

•

Attitude scale

•

Questionnaire

(ii)

Psychological tests and inventories

•

Achievement test

•

Inventory

•

Aptitude test

Inquiry Forms

It is one of the most important tools of data collection that seeks to extract information and a price of knowledge from the targeted audience. Various types of inquiry forms are administered for assessing people's opinion, attitude, belief and other dimensions of question.

It includes-

Rating Scale

It refers to a scale, with a set of points that describe varying degrees of the dimension of attribute, being observed.

Classification of Rating Scale

*

Numerical scale

*

Graphic scale

*

Standard scale

*

Rating by cumulative points

*

Forced choice ratings

It is a set of categories, designed to elicit information about a quantitative or a qualitative attribute. In social science, common examples are Likert scale and 1-10 rating scale, in which a person selects the number, which is considered to reflect the perceived quality of a product.

Thus, rating scale is a method that requires assigning a value, sometimes numeric to the rated object as a measure of some rated attribute.

It is broadly classified into five categories and they are

(i)

Numerical Scale In a numerical scale, a sequence of definite numbers is supplied to the rater or to the observer. The observer assigns to each stimulus to be rated, an appropriate number in line with those definitions or descriptions.

The following scales may be used in obtaining ratings of the affective values of colours on a point scale, which may consist of different points.

Point Scale

Rating

Ł

Most pleasant

Ł

Extremely pleasant

••

Moderately pleasant

-Mildly pleasant

-Indifferent

Ł

Mildly unpleasant

Ł

Moderately unpleasant

Ł

Extremely unpleasant

Ł

Most unpleasant

9

8

7

6

s

4

3

Instead of 9 point scale, we can draw 3 point, S point or 7 point scales too. It is always useful to have an odd number of points in a scale line like 3, 5 and 7, so that there could be a middle point i.e. a favourable one and an unfavourable one. This scale is easiest to construct and to apply. They are also the simplest in terms of handling the results.

(ii)

Graphic Scale It is the most popular and widely used type of rating scale. In this scale, a straight line is shown vertically or horizontally with various clues to help the

rater. The line is either segmented into units or is continuous. If the line is segmented, the number of segments can vary from case to case.

It is also known as 'continuous rating scale'. The ends of the continuous are sometimes labelled with opposite values. Respondents are required to make a mark, at any point on the scale that they find appropriate.

Sometimes, there are numbers along the markings of the line too. At other times, there are no markings at all on the line.

(iii)

Standard Scale In standard scale, a set of standards is presented to the rater. Usually, the standards are objects of the same kind, to be rated with pre-established scale values. This type of scale is like that of the scale for judging the quality of hand writing. The scale of hand writing provides several standard specimens that have previously been spread over on a common scale, by some standardised procedure, like equal appearing intervals. The 'man-to-man' scale and the 'portrait matching' scale are the other two forms that conform more or less to the principles of standard scales.

(iv)

Rating by Cumulative Points The unique and distinctive feature of rating by cumulative points is its immense and easy utility of scoring. The rating score for an attribute, object or individual is the sum or average of the weighted or unweighted points. The 'checklist method' and the 'guess' technique belong to this category of rating.

(v)

Forced Choice Ratings They are those ratings, which are biased or influenced by some external factors.

Advantages of Rating Scale

•

Rating scales are less time consuming to develop.

•

It can be used with a large number of stimuli.

•

They also allow for quantitative comparison.•

•

Rating scale is quite interesting to the raters, especially if graphic methods are used.

•

Best rating can be obtained by presenting one stimulus to a rater at a time.

•

Rating can be used with rates who have little very training for the purpose.

•

Rating scales have a much wider range of application and can be used for teacher ratings, personality ratings, school appraisal, sociological survey, etc.

Disadvantages of Rating Scale

Limited Reliability Rating scale method has limited reliability.

Ease of Use Rating scale can be used by unqualified users.

Sophisticated Treatment Planning Rating scale is not suitable for sophisticated treatment planning.

Error of Central Tendency Most of the raters hesitate to rate the individuals on the extremes of the scale, instead they tend to rate the individual on the middle of the scale. Hence, the results get distorted.

Substantial Variations Rating scale may be substantial variations among informants.

Halo Effect It is an error, which obscures the clusters of traits within an individual. The raters form a general opinion about the person's merit and his ratings on specific traits are greatly influenced by this general impression.

Contrast Error It is due to a tendency of a rater to rate others in the opposite direction (contrasting) from himself in a trait.

Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case. The questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis Galton.

It is a self-report data collection instrument that each research's participant fills out as part of a research study. Researchers use questionnaire to obtain information about the thoughts, feelings, attitudes, beliefs, values, perceptions, personality and behavioural intentions of research participants. According to John W. Best, "a questionnaire is

used when factual information is desired, when opinion rather than facts are desired and an opinionnaire or attitude scale is used".

They have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys and often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile data.

Basic rules for preparation of questionnaire are:

•

Use statements which are interpreted in the same way by members of different sub-populations of the population of interest.

•

Use statements where persons that have different opinions or traits will give different answers.

•

Think of having an open answer category, after a list of possible answers.

•

Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per item.

•

Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double negatives.

•

Do not make assumptions about the respondent.

•

Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily understandable for all educational levels.

•

Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.

•

Avoid items that contain more than one question per item (e.g. Do you like apples and tomatoes?).

Types of Questionnaire

Questionnaire means a set of questions prepared for drawing the responses from the subjects for research work. Every researcher uses this technique in their survey research. Researchers have classified questionnaire into the following groups:

According to P V Young, questionnaire is of two types and they are:-

1.

Structured questionnaire

2.

Non-structured questionnaire

1.

Structured Questionnaire In structured questionnaires, definite concrete and pre-ordained questions are used for two purposes.

They are:

Accurate Communication It is justified when the respondents understand the survey objectives.

Accurate Response It is obtained when the replies contain the information sought and at the same time fulfil the demands of tabulation plans and analytical programmes.

2.

Non-Structured Questionnaire It is known as interview guide. It contains definite subject matter areas. The interviewer is free to arrange the form and timing of enquiry.

Advantages of Questionnaire

Giving Way to Put Forward The questionnaire as a tool of educational research has a great importance in its form. It helps the researcher to put forward his project. Summarising A questionnaire summarises the ideas of the respondent.

Written Form Questionnaire in written form will enable the researcher to get more responses. Because the respondent feels more free while expressing his views regarding a question in written form.

Helps in Collecting Information Sometimes, the researchers are unable to move the geographical areas on which they have taken their study. Thus, this helps them to collect information.

Less Pressure on the Subject to Respond A questionnaire places less pressure on the subjects to respond immediately. It gives a lot of time to fill it up. Before filling up the questions, he thinks more about the suitable answer of the question.

To the Point Answers Questionnaire does not require the unnecessary materials. What actually, the question wants the respondent to answer to the point only.

Helps in Minimising the Expenses Questionnaires help in minimising the expenses, both in terms of money and effort. Whenever the researcher is enable to go to collect information about a school, he collects information through his mates and also teachers concerned of the particular school.

Validity of the Project Information collected in a lot will give a greater validity of the project.

Disadvantages of Questionnaire

Rigid and Complicated Questionnaire A rigid and complicated questionnaire does not draw accurate responses from the subject.

Without Holding True Answers Sometimes, respondents do not give a true answer to their questions. Some respondents play mischievous with the researcher.

Confusion About Actual Meaning Some subjects are confused to understand the actual meaning of the questions.

Lost Mail A questionnaire sent by mail is sometimes not found.

Incomplete Answers Sometimes, the respondents give incomplete answers. This makes the researcher confused in drawing the accurate answers.

Not a Matter of Interest Many times, the questionnaire sent to the subjects are neglected and overlooked due to lack of interest. Even after a few nudges, the subject may not reveal true answers.

Attitude Scale

It is a form of appraisal procedure, which is designed to measure the attitude of a subject or group of subjects towards issues, institutions and groups of people.

Attitude is a special type of questionnaire, designed to produce scores, indicating the intensity and direction of a person's feeling or opinion about an object or event. This scale provides a quantitative measurement of attitudes, opinions or values by summarising numerical scores given by researchers to people's responses to a set of statements exploring dimensions of an underlying theme.

The term attitude is defined in many ways. But, all definitions conclude it as an established way of thinking or feeling reflected in a person's behaviour towards others. Sometimes, opinion and attitude are used in a synonymous manner, but there is a thin

line of difference between the two. An opinion may not lead to a kind of activity in a particular direction. But, attitude compels one to act favourably or unfavourably, depending upon the perception.

The most common types of attitude scales are discussed below:

(i)

Likert Scale It is a psychometric response scale, primarily used in questionnaires to obtain participant's preferences in terms of degree of agreement to a statement or set of statements.

Variations are most commonly seen as a 5 point scale ranging from 'strongly disagree' on one end to 'strongly agree' on the other with 'neither agree nor disagree' in the middle. However, practitioners advocate the use of 7 and 9 point scales, which add additional granularity. Sometimes, a 4 point scale (or other even-numbered) is used to produce an ipsative (forced choice) measure, where no indifferent option is available. Each level on the scale is assigned a numeric value or coding, usually starting at I and incremented by one for each level.

For example:

O □ � © © Strongly Agree Agree Neither Disagree Strongly disagree

Sample Scale Used in Likert Scale Questions

(ii)

Guttman Scale It is based on the idea that items can be arranged along a continuum in such a way that a person, who agrees with an item or finds an item acceptable will also agree with or finds acceptable all other items, expressing a less extreme position. This scale presents a number of items to which the person is supposed to either agree or disagree, which is typically done in a 'Yes/No' dichotomous format.

(iii)

Thurstone Scale It is also known as equal appearing interval scale. It is used to measure the attitude towards a given concept or construct. For this, a large number of

statements are collected that relate to the construct in consideration. The judges rate these statements, along on an 11 category scale, in which each of the categories have a fixed level of propensenties towards the concept.

(iv) Semantic Differential Scale This method requires respondents to choose in the questionnaire between two opposite positions, using qualifications to bridge the gap between them. One must decide the two extremely opposite terms, related to a particular dimension and create a rating sheet.

It measures an individual's reaction to stimulus words and concepts in terms of ratings on bi-polar adjectives at each end.

For example, enjoyable and unenjoyable, funny and not funny, relatable and non-relatable, etc.

A typical question with semantic differential scale would be as follows:

Very much

Some what

Neither

Some what

Very much

Enjoyable

x

Unenjoyable

Funny

x

X

Not funny

Relatable

Unrelatable

Advantages of Attitude Scale

•

An attitude is a learned tendency, so it can be learnt.

•

It is a point or object of reference.

•

It includes certain aspects of personality such as interests, appreciations and social conduct.

Disadvantages of Attitude Scale

•

Attitude is a complex affair which can't be wholly described by any single numerical complex.

•

Attitude is subject to change. So what is measured today about a student's attitude may not indicate his future attitude towards the subject or occupation.

•

Students sometimes give vague responses to items on an attitude scale. It is not always and in all cases possible to get real attitude of a student.

•

Generally, pupils or students are trained to give tick marks on the middle of the scale. So their responses don't reveal the true dimension of their attitudes.

•

Discrepancy is noticed in student's expressed attitude and tested attitude. Hence tested attitude isn't always dependable.

Psychological Tests and Inventories

Achievement Test

These tests attempt to measure the present level of performance of a group or an individual. It is commonly used in schools and colleges. They are helpful in determining individual or group status in academic learning. Also, they are used in diagnosing strengths and weaknesses and as a basis of awarding degrees, prizes or scholarships.

Advantages of Achievement Tests

•

Achievement tests allow for data to be collected about student achievement and learning that helps to inform educators, curriculum planners and the state officials who can help to determine the budget for a school.

•

It also helps to point out instructional leaders who are falling short of their duties and whose standards are performing below standards.

•

These tests are non-discriminatory because the content evaluated on the tests has been presented to all students. It helps to create educational equity in the schools.

Disadvantages of Achievement Test

•

Tests do not help student achievement in any meaningful way and the increase in positive scores that are seen on the test is merely a reflection of curriculum that is designed to help students score high but perhaps less quantifiable learning that should be taking place in the classroom.

•

Students lack critical thinking skills and due to these tests they are being focussed predominantly on rote memorisation.

•

These tests are not indicative of strong instructional leadership in the classroom nor an academically rigorous classroom. Critics also held that these tests posed challenges for children with learning disabilities whom the stress of test or structure of questions may affect negatively.

Aptitude Tests

These tests attempt to predict the capacities or the degree of achievement that may be expected from a group or an individual in a particular activity. Like achievement tests, they also measure past learning. They attempt to predict group or individual's capacity to acquire improved performance with additional training. It helps to check one's knowledge and filters the good candidates. The ability of creativity and intelligence is proved by the aptitude test.

Advantages of Aptitude Test

•

Aptitude tests attempt to predict the capacities or the degree of achievement that may be expected from individuals in a particular activity.

•

Aptitude is a means by which one can find the relative knowledge of a person in terms of his intelligence and also his knowledge in general.

•

They are excellent predictors of future scholastic achievement. They provide ways for comparison of a child's performance with others in the same situation. They provide a profile of strength and weaknesses. They assess differences among individuals.

•

Aptitude tests are valuable in making programme and curricula decisions.

Disadvantages of Aptitude Test

•

The physical, social and emotional environment of the pupil is often different from the actual environment in the job or in college. This reduces the predictive value of the aptitude test.

•

An aptitude test gives us a prediction of the probability only. There is never any certainty that predictions will always come true. It is noticed that brilliant students sometimes fail to top the list while an average student who was initially not doing well may top the list.

Inventory

It is a list, record or catalogue containing a list of traits, preferences, attitudes, interests or abilities, used to evaluate personal characteristics or skills. The purpose of inventory is to list a specific trait, activity or programme and to check to what extent the presence of that ability.

There are two types of inventories and they are

(i)

Interest Inventory They attempt to yield the measure of the types of activities that an individual has a tendency to like or choose. They are self-report instruments, in which the individuals note their own likes and dislikes. They are the standardized interviews, in which the subject gives an introspective report of his/her feelings about certain situations and phenomena, which is then interpreted in terms of interests. The use of interest inventories is most frequent in the areas of educational, vocational guidance, and case studies.

(ii)

Personality Inventory These are the self-report instruments. These instruments yield scores that are assumed or have been shown to measure certain personality traits or tendencies.

Techniques of Research

Observation

The cause-effect relationship and study of events in the original is known as observation. According to the C A Mourse, "Observation employs relatively more visual senses than audio or video organs' In this method of data collection, it involves

something that we do most of our working hours i.e. observe things. Researchers are also observers of things in the world.

Classification of Observation

1.

On the Basis of Form of Observation

•

Formal observation

•

Informal observation

2.

On the Basis of Control of Observation

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Controlled observation

•

Uncontrolled observation

3.

On the Basis of Planning of Observation

•

Planned observation

•

Unplanned observation

4.

On the Basis of Direction of Observation

•

Direct observation

•

Indirect observation

5.

On the Basis of Information of Observation

•

Qualitative observation

•

Quantitative observation

•

Qualitative and Quantitative observation

6.

On the Basis of Interview's Observation

•

Individual observation

•

Group observation

7.

On the Basis of Person's Observation

•

Self-observation

•

Outsiders observation

In research, observation is defined as the watching of behavioural patterns of people in certain situations to obtain information about the phenomenon of interest. It is an important way of collecting information about people because people do not always do what they say they do. It is a maxim in the social and behavioural sciences that attitudes and behaviour are not always congruent.

Modes of Collecting Observational Data

Modes of collecting observational data are-

(i)Laboratory Observation It is carried out in settings that are setup by the researcher and inside the confines of a research lab. An example would be a researcher observing the behaviour of children through a one way window in the researcher's laboratory.

(ii)

Naturalistic Observation It is carried out in the real world. Observing the behaviour of children in their classrooms is an example of naturalistic observation.

(iii)

Quantitative Observation Quantitative Or structured observation involves the standardisation of all observational procedures in order to obtain reliable research data.

It often involves the standardisation of each of the following-

Who is observed? (e.g. What kinds of people are to be studied, such as teachers or students).

What is observed? (What variables are to be observed by the researcher, such as time on tasks or out of seat behaviour).

When will the observations take place? (during morning hours or during break time).

Where the observations are to be carried out? (In the laboratory, in the classroom, in the lunchroom, in the library or on the playground).

How are the observations to be done? Usually, quantitative observation results in quantitative data, such as counts or frequencies and percentages. It might also involve observational sampling techniques. One technique is called time interval sampling, which involves checking for events during the time interval, specified in advance of the actual data collection.

Another technique is called event sampling, which involves making observations only after a specific event has occurred.

(iv)

Qualitative Observation It involves observing all relevant phenomenas and taking extensive field notes without specifying in advance, exactly what is to be observed.

Usually, it is done for exploratory purposes. It is usually done in a natural setting. It is usually carried out by qualitative researchers.

The four main roles that a researcher can take during qualitative observation are as follows-

(i)

Complete Participant Observer Essentially, the observer takes on the role of an insider, becoming a member of the group being studied and spending a great deal of time with the group and does not tell members they are being studied.

(ii)

Participant as Observer Researcher spends extended time with the group as an insider and tells members they are being studied.

(iii)

Observer as Participant Researcher spends a limited amount of time observing group members and tells members they are being studied.

(iv)

Complete Observer Researcher observes as an outsider and does not tell the people they are being observed.

Features of Observation

•

In an accurate sense, observation involves the use of eyes rather than the use of the ears and the voice. An experienced worker never believes what he hears say. He only trusts if he has observed that with his own eyes.

•

Observations which act on scientific grounds are brought in use by the scientists or the researchers with some or the other aim to achieve something. Such scientists make their observations in a very minute and detailed manner, which helps them in achieving specific goals.

•

The value of an observation in an operation is only if it is done properly in a planned manner, but if it is done in a careless sense then the chance of making such an observation again may come or not. Hence, observation should be carried out in a very phased and a planned manner in order to get in depth understanding of an activity.

•

Observation should be based on standardised tools of research, which makes an observation exact in its nature of working.

•

Observation is a very vital scientific method that helps a lot in the collection of the primary information that is reliable in nature, in which direct study of the situation is involved.

•

Observation is a scientific method, in which we make hypothesis of explain observation.

•

The various operations that we perform and the results that we obtain should be remembered, but a known fact is that memory is very deceptive in nature. With the passage of time, things tend to get out of mind, so it is very important to keep a record of such activities.

•

Sense organs have a very critical role to play in the observation process. During the observation, researcher or investigator has to use his sense organs for seeing and hearing things and then has to keep in mind the whole set of observations for an in depth analysis of the matter later on.

Advantages of Observation

•

Personality is better assessed by observation of behaviour, than by reporting which may hide facts.

•

The tool does not need any communication medium. Thus, it can be used for collecting data regarding infants and illiterates or people who don't understand the observer's language.

•

The main strength of observation is that it provides direct access to the social phenomena, under consideration.

•

Observation can take diverse forms, from informal and unstructured approaches through to tightly structured and standardised procedures and can yield associated diverse types of data, both qualitative and quantitative observation, therefore, it is applicable in a wide range of contexts.

•

All observations entail some form of recording means is that it provides a permanent record of such events or behaviour, thus, allowing further analysis or subsequent comparisons across time or location to be carried out.

•

The behaviour can be observed in a natural setting and hence, the inferences can have applicability to ordinary life situations as well. This is called 'external validity' i.e. applicability beyond the observed situation.

•

Using more than one technique of data collection through a process of triangulation is seen as highly desirable as an overarching research strategy. Therefore, another strength of observation is that it can effectively complement other approaches and thus, enhance the quality of evidence available to the researcher.

Disadvantages of Observation

•

One of the main disadvantages of observation is that it can be very time consuming and resource intensive. It may be a very desirable strategy to explore certain research questions, but it may simply not be feasible for the researcher with limited time and resources to carry out the observation and therefore, alternative strategies would have to be pursued.

•

Covert behaviour and traits cannot be observed.

•

The behaviour of grown up adult people turns artificial, when they become conscious of the observer.

•

Even though the inferences have applicability to ordinary life situations, still the internal validity of the inferences may be low in uncontrolled situations and natural settings without any experimental controls as the data collected may not be really reliable and valid. The observation may get prejudiced and coloured by the subjectivity or feelings of the observer and suffer in reliability.

•

Another potential weakness of observation is the so called observer effect, which refers to the way in which the presence of an observer in some way influences the behaviour of those being observed. In order to avoid or minimise this, methods of observation sometimes attempt to be as unobtrusive as possible.

•

A fundamental potential weakness of all observation is that it is susceptible to observer bias, subjective bias on the part of the observer, thus undermining the reliability and hence, the validity of the data gathered. This can be because the observer records not what actually happened, but what they either wanted to see, expected to see or merely thought they saw.

Types of Observations

•

Structured to unstructured

•

Personal

•

Mechanical

•

Disguised or undisguised

•

Natural or contrived

•

Non-participant to participant

Sometimes, observation process is treated casually, but is a method that needs to be treated as rigorously as any others.

Observation should includes:

•

planning

•

recording

•

authenticating

•

reflecting

•

survey design

Interview

It is one-to-one direct communication between researcher and subject for collection of data. It is a series of questions to be asked in an interview. It is a great process for generating information on a number of questions or issues at once. It balances participation and requires active involvement and critical thinking skills.

The interview design works well with a group of 12 or more people and requires time between 75 to 90 minutes. This is a multi-step process, where each participant first collects information (ideas, opinions or experiences related to the topic) through interviewing at least four other participants.

Interview questions should be generated in advance. Persons with like questions are then grouped for the purpose of analysing the responses in depth. In the final step, each group depicts their response in the form of a graphic display that is shared with the whole group in debriefing the group process.

Types of Interviews

According to Goode and Hatt various types of interviews are as

Clinical Interview In clinical work, social workers and psychiatrists use interviews to secure information about an individual's problem, his past history, job or family adjustment. In such situations, the major purpose of the interview is diagnosis and treatment. This type of interview is called a clinical interview.

Research Interview The investigator attempts to collect relative information for solving his problem of historical, experimental, surveys or clinical type.

Group Interview A group interview is one which consists of some sociable, intellectual and educated persons from whom effective information can be collected.

Direct Interview It is a structured interview. It is a set of closed type questions prepared for the purpose.

Non-Directive Interview It includes the questions of the open end form and the researcher talks freely about the problem under study.

Focused Interview It aims at active responses from the respondents on specific events.

Generally, Goode and Hatt point out the interview conducted by a researcher may be different in its structure, but its sole aim is to collect information from the respondents for the project taken for study.

Advantages of Interview

An interview is a conversation between two or more people, when questions are asked by the interviewer to elicit facts or statements from the interviewer. Although interviews are a standard part of journalism and media reporting, the focus of this piece is on how interviews can be used as a tool of psychological research.

Interview can be used as a tool in psychological research in following ways:-

•

In a questionnaire, only the answer to the question is required. Sometimes, the respondent is unable to answer due to problems in understanding the matter. But, in an interview, if the respondent is not able to answer a particular question, the researcher also asks other questions, relating to the asked question for its answer. Thus, through the interview he gets more responses.

•

An interviewer can try his best to establish good rapport with the interviewer.

•

An interview can be used to collect facts. e.g. information about people's place of work, age, etc, but such questions are usually not more than opening items, which precede the main substance.

•

The bulk of interview questions seeks to elicit information about attitudes and opinions and perspectives and meanings, the very stuff of much of both psychology and sociology.

•

Interviews are available in a range of style.

•

There is a half-way house, where the researcher designs a set of key questions to be raised before the interview takes place, but builds in considerable flexibility about how and when these issues are raised and allows for a considerable amount of additional topics to be built in response to the dynamics of conversational exchange.

Disadvantages of Interview

•

Hesitation to express.•

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Vague and unclear questions.

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Time restrictions.

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Less time for thinking.

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Subjective in nature.

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Researcher's influence necessary.

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Consciousness required.

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Manipulated/socially accepted responses may preferred.

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Psychological, social and educational hindrances.

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More expense in time and money.

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Requires high level of expertise.

Conducting of an Interview

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Interview schedule should be as per objectives.

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Planning of time duration, place and mode of recording.

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Follow formalities.

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Use of an appropriate language.

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Positive body language.

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Directing the interview.

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Questioning proper stress and tone and use of sub-questions if required.

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Researchers must be sociable and also should be faithful to the respondents. So, the respondents can express their answers more clearly and freely..

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Listen to the opinions of the subject patiently.

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Questions prepared for the hypothesis must be clear in its meaning.

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No irrelevant conversation should be organised at the time of interview.

Usage of Forms of Interview

A great deal of qualitative material comes from talking with people whether it be through formal interviews or casual conversation. If interviews are going to tap into depths of reality of the situation and discover subjects's meanings and understandings, it is essential for the researcher to develop empathy with interviewees and win their confidence to be unobtrusive, in order not to impose one's own influence on the interviewee.

The best technique for this is the unstructured interview. Here, the researcher has some general ideas about the topics of the interview and may have an aid memory of points that might arise in discussion for use as prompts, if necessary. But, the hope is that those points will come up in the natural course of the discussion as the interviewee talks.

As with observation, it may be that the researcher begins with a more focused study and wishes to know certain things. In these cases, a structured interview might be more appropriate. Here, the researcher decides the structure of the interview and sets out with pre-determined questions.

These tests are the useful and most frequently employed tools of educational research. They are used to describe and measure a sample of certain aspects of human behaviour or inner qualities. They provide the data for most experimental and descriptive studies of education. They yield objectives and standardised descriptions of some psychological aspects of an individual's personality and translate them in quantitative terms. There are various kinds of psychological tests.

Projective Techniques

This technique of data collection has been developed by the psychologists to use projections of respondents for inferring about underlying motives, urges or intentions, which are such that the respondent either resists revealing them or is unable to figure out himself. In projective techniques, the respondent in supplying information tends unconsciously to project his/her own attitude or feelings on the subject under study.

Projective techniques play a significant role in motivational researchers or in attitude surveys. The use of these techniques require intensive specialised training. In such techniques, the individual's responses to the stimulus situation are not taken at their face value. The stimuli may arouse different kinds of reactions. The nature of the stimuli and the way they are presented under these techniques do not clearly show the way in which the responses are to be interpreted. The stimulus may be a photograph, a picture, an inkblot and so on. Responses to these stimuli are interpreted as indicating the individual's own view, his personality structure, needs, tensions, etc, in the context of some pre-established psychological conceptualisation of what the individual's response to the stimulus means. Projective techniques may be used in qualitative as well as quantitative techniques and they are useful in both.

The Oxford University Press Dictionary of Psychology (Colman, 2001) defines projective techniques as "Any of a variety of personality tests in which the respondents give free responses to a series of stimuli, such as an inkblots, pictures or an incomplete sentence. Such tests are based on the psychoanalytic concept of projection, the assumption being that the respondents project unconscious aspects of their personality into the test items and reveal them in their responses".

The use of projective devices is particularly helpful in counteracting the tendency of subjects to try to appear in their best light, to respond as they believe they should.

The projections may be accomplished through a number of techniques such as-

Association The respondent is asked to indicate what he/she feels or thinks when presented with a picture, carbon, inkblot, word or phrases. The thematic apperception test, the Rorschach's inkblot test and various word association tests.

Completion The respondent is asked to complete an incomplete sentence or task.

A sentence completion instrument may include following items:

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My greatest ambition is

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My greatest fear is

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I mostly enjoy

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I dream a greatful deal about

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I get angry when

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If I could do anything I wanted it would be to

Role Playing Here, the subjects are asked to improvise or act out a situation in which they have been assigned various roles. The researcher may observe such traits as hostility, frustration, dominance, sympathy, insecurity, prejudice or the absence of such traits.

Creative or Constructive Permitting subjects to model clay, figure paint, play with dolls, play with toys or draw or write imaginative stories about assigned situations may be revealing. The choice of colour, form, words, the sense of orderliness, evidence of tensions and other reactions may provide opportunities to infer deep seated feelings.

Universe

The universe consists of all survey elements that qualify for inclusion in the research study. The precise definition of the universe for a particular study is set by the research question. The universe may be individuals, groups of people, organisations or even objects. The population or universe represents the entire group of units. Universe is the set of all experimental units from which a sample is to be drawn. From a statistical point of view, the term 'Universe' refers to the total of the items or units in any field of inquiry. Universe can be finite or infinite. It is said to be finite if it consists of a fixed number of elements so that it is possible to enumerate it in its totality. Whereas in an infinite aspect it is theoretically impossible to observe all the elements. We cannot have any idea about the total number of items.

Sample

The representative proportion of the population is called a sample. To obtain a representative sample, the researcher selects each unit in a specified way under controlled conditions.

Usually, four steps are involved in the process-

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Defining the population

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Listing the population

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Selecting a representative sample

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Obtaining an adequate sample

After defining a population and listing all the units, a researcher selects a sample of units from the sampling frame. The process of such a selection is called sampling. In order to serve a useful purpose, sampling should be unbiased or representative.

A good sample must be as nearly representative to the entire population as possible and ideally, it must provide the whole of the information about the population from which the sample has been drawn.

The logic of the theory of sampling is the theory of induction, that is we proceed from particular, to general and all the results are expressed in terms of probability.

Garrett (1962) has pointed out that if the size of the sample is less than 25, there is often little reason for believing such a small group of units to be adequately descriptive of any population. If a greater precision of results in an investigation is needed, the sample should be larger. Greater precision is sometimes needed when one is dealing in areas where differences are likely to be small. The adequacy of the sample depends upon our knowledge of the population as well as upon the method used in drawing the sample.

A true representative sample can exactly be defined by the researcher through given steps-

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Listing the population with comprehensive and accurate list.

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Selecting a representative sample by pairing a list and sample is selected from the frame.

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Obtaining an adequate sample, which depends upon the method used in drawing the sample.

Characteristics of Good Sample

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The sample must be representative of the population. The sample size must be selected, depending upon the research objectives.

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Sample should be flexible, so that it can be modified depending upon the prevailing circumstances.

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Sample should reflect all the members of the population of data.

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Sample should be large enough to give sufficient precision.

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Sample should be unbiased by the sampling procedure or equipment.

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Sample should be chosen in a systematically random way so that chance or the operation of probability is utilised.

Techniques of Sampling

Techniques of sampling are given below-

Probability Sampling

In probability sampling, the units of the population are not selected at the discretion of the researcher, but by the means of certain procedures, which ensure that every unit of a population has one fixed probability of being included in the sample. This method is also called random sampling.

Randomisation has two important applications in research, which are as follows-

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Selecting a group of individuals for observation, who are representative of the population about which the researcher wishes to generalise.

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Equating experimental and control groups in a random experiment. Assigning individual assignments (each individual in the sample has an equal and independent chance of being assigned to each of the groups) is the best method of providing for their equivalence.

Characteristics of Probability Sampling

According to Good (1966), probability sample have the following characteristics

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Each unit in the sample has some known probability of entering the sample.

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Weights appropriate to the probabilities are used in the analysis of the sample.

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The process of sampling is automatic in one or more steps of selection of units in the sample.

Advantages of Probability Sampling

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It helps the researcher to know the size of the sample needed to achieve any desired level of accuracy.

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The researchers also may be able to specify the chance of each unit being selected.

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This method also helps to estimate the magnitude of error due to sampling.

Disadvantages of Probability Sampling

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It depends upon how good a sampling frame is made, although this remains a limitation in complete enumeration studies.

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In this process, only a portion of the sampling frame is examined and so specific information on every sampling unit (people, account, inventory, etc) are ignored,

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In small areas or rare sub-population, sampling error may be high.

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Representatives of the frame may be questionable and controversial.

Types of Probability Sampling

There are different methods of selecting a probability sample, which have their own advantages and limitations.

Types of probability samplings are as follows-

(i)

Simple or Unrestricted Random Sampling In simple or unrestricted random sampling, each unit of the population is given an equal chance of being selected. The selection of units from the population is done in such a manner that every unit in the population has an equal chance of being chosen and the selection of anyone. Unit is in no way tied to the selection of any other. The law of chance is allowed to operate freely in the selection of such a sample and carefully controlled conditions are created to ensure that each unit in the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.

Several devices are used here to draw samples from population:

Lottery Method In this case, researchers will use a set of N tickets, if there are N units in the population, with numbers I to N written on the tickets. The tickets will be thoroughly mixed up and then N tickets will be drawn one by one, if the sample of size N is required. The units which have the serial numbers occurring on these N tickets will be considered as selected.

Use of Random Table In this, consecutive numbers are assigned to the units of the population, the investigator starts at any point on the table of random numbers and consecutive numbers in any direction. Researcher reads the number on the table and picks up every unit one by one and in this way, the required number of units are selected.

(ii)

Stratified Random Sampling This method is used to overcome the four problems related to simple random sampling. Here, the researcher first divides his whole population into different strata on the basis of certain characteristics and a random sample is drawn from each stratum.

Such stratification of the population makes different small homogenous groups of the population and simple random sampling techniques can be applied to each group to select the required number of samples.

A population can be stratified on many grounds, such as age, sex, grade, economic condition, place of residing, occupation, caste, etc. The efficiency of stratified random samples depends on the allocation of sample size to strata. Percentage Method is the best method of allocating sample size among strata. Stratified random sampling ensures that specific groups are represented, even proportionally, in the sample(s)(e.g. by gender), by selecting individuals from strata test.

(iii)

Systematic Sampling When a frame of a population is available or when a population can be accurately listed and is finite, a method of systematic selection will provide a sample which approximates a random sample. Here, all the units of the population are listed in an alphabetical order first. Then if 100 units, out of 1000 units of a population has to be selected, one may keep interval of 10 units of a population, throughout the population.

(iv)

Cluster Sampling This is a variation of simple random sampling.

This method is used when

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population is infinite.

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list of all units of population is not available.

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population is scattered over a wide geographical area

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individuals have to be studied as a group.

In this method, different clusters of the whole population are formed due to the large area of the population. That is why it is also called area sampling. The individuals in 49

these clusters have almost all the same characteristics of their respective groups. The final result is generalised to be the whole state.

(v)

Multi-Stage Sampling This is used in large scale surveys for making the study more comprehensive. Sampling here is done in two, three or four stages. LE Multi-stage sampling is comparatively convenient, less time consuming and less expensive method of sampling. However, an element of sample bias gets introduced because of the unequal size of some of the selected sub-samples. This method is recommended only when it would be impracticable to draw a random sample.

Non-Probability Sampling

In non-probability sampling, the units are selected at the discretion of the researcher. Such samples use human judgement in selecting units and have no theoretical basis for estimating population characteristics. While selecting the sample, the researcher only thinks where he will get the required data to serve his purpose. That is why it is also called a purposive sample.

The non-probability sampling methods are very convenient in the situations, when the sample to be selected is very small and the researcher wants to get some idea of the population characteristics in a short time.

Such samples are used in the situations, where the researcher does not want a representative sample, but to gain insight into the problem by selecting only an informed person, who can provide him the maximum degree of insight into his problem with comprehensive information.

Types of Non-Probability Samplings

Types of non-probability samples are as follows-

Quota or Chunk Sample In this method, the quota of samples from different units of the population is fixed and thus, a total sample is selected.

Incidental/Volunteer/Convenient Sampling In this method, whosoever is available to cooperate for providing information is selected and thus, the required number of samples is obtained.

Snowball Sampling It is used to find subjects of interest from those, who are most likely to be able to identify them. In this technique, the researcher uses a few subjects to identify the other individuals who might be appropriate for the study. This continues with the new subjects, until the researcher has a sufficient sample size.

Advantages of Non-Probability Sampling

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They are quicker, cost effective and more convenient than probability samples.

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Non-probability samples do not require a sampling frame.

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The sample size and quota requirements are usually achieved.

Disadvantages of Non-Probability Sampling

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Less confidence is placed in the data obtained from samples and thus, results obtained cannot be generalised for the entire population.

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Sampling based on convenience affects the variance within groups as well as between groups.

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Sampling errors of these samples cannot be determined.

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They depend exclusively on uncontrolled factors and researcher's insight and there is no statistical method to determine the margin of sampling errors.

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Sometimes, such samples are based on absolute frame, which does not adequately cover the population.

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There is considerable scope for bias in the selection of units to be included in the sample.

Research Proposal

According to Koul, "The research proposal is a systematic plan, which brings to focus the preliminary planning that will be needed to accomplish the purpose of the proposed study".

The preparation of a research proposal is an important step in the process of research. There is no universally accepted format for preparing research proposals. Most of the

institutions and funding agencies require the researcher to submit their research proposal as per the specific format of that agency.

Before submitting a proposal for funding, follow the particular format that is specified by the funding agencies. However, almost all the formats ask for certain specifications of the plan to appear in the research proposal. These specifications provide sufficient information about the researcher's planning and for evaluation of the research proposal. There are certain specifications, which are common to all types of research proposals and are included in all types of format.

Steps for Writing Research Proposal

A research proposal should be framed on the basis of the following steps/guidelines .

Title of the Project

The title of the research proposal is just the name of the topic and suggests the theme of the work to be done. While selecting the title of the project, the researcher should take care that instead of using flowery words, professional language and terms should be used in an easy and understandable manner. Also the title should be brief, concise and specific. Specific in the sense that it should claim for the study what it is going to actually deliver. Thus, a good title is that which provides sufficient information about the nature of the proposed project.

The Statement of the Problem

The statement of the problem may be presented either as a declarative statement or in question form. This attempt to focus on a stated goal, gives direction to the research process. It must be limited enough in scope to make a definite conclusion possible. The major statement may be followed by a minor statement. A problem suggests a specific answer or conclusion. Usually, a controversy or a difference of opinion exists. A cause and effect relationship may be suggested upon the basis of theory or previous research findings.Personal observation and experience may be the basis of a problem.

Some examples of the problem statements are-

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Children who have kindergarten experience might demonstrate greater academic achievement in the first grade than those who have not had this experience.

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Knowledge of participation in an experiment may have a stimulating effect upon the reading achievement of the participants.

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The significance of the problem is important for both the researcher and the evaluator of the research proposal. The researcher must show how his/her research work is going to contribute to the existing knowledge or influence the Educational Theory and/or practice. He/she must focus on the significance and relevance of his/her study. And in order to maintain the quality of educational research, the evaluator must critically examine the significance and relevance of the submitted proposal.

Assumptions, Limitations and Delimitations

The researcher should define all unusual terms that others could misinterpret. These definitions help to establish the frame of reference with which the researcher approaches the problem. The operational definitions of the variables should be given in the research proposal. Such expressions as academic achievement and intelligence are useful concepts, but they cannot be used as criteria, unless they are defined as observable samples of behaviour or score on standardised intelligence tests is an operational definition of intelligence.

Assumptions These are those statements, which are assumed to be the facts but can't be verified without testing. The researcher should give sufficient details and basis of these assumptions in his/her research proposal.

Limitations These are those conditions beyond the control of the researcher that may place restrictions on the conclusion of the study and their application to other situations. The limitations such as inability to select samples randomly or inability to use validated tests for data collection should be properly reported in research proposals. Delimitations These are the boundaries of the study. A study may focus on the achievement motivation in relation to the socio-economic status of the 9th grade students. Here, the conclusions can't be extended beyond this population sample

studied. We should give sufficient space to these various delimitations, also in our research proposal.

Review of Related Literature

The review of literature by any researcher shows how up-to-date he/she is in the area of research. Any new research is built upon or adds to what is known up to that point of time. The review should provide evidence of the investigator's knowledge of the field of investigation and also help him/her evolving new insight and build new approaches to the problem under investigation.

It is usual to review all relevant theories, writings and studies bearing on the theme depending upon the specific needs of the study. Only those studies that are plainly relevant, competently executed and clearly reported should be included.

The reviews must be classified in the most appropriate and meaningful form. The reviews should also point out the inadequacies in existing studies (methodological, conceptual, etc), research areas which have been left out, areas requiring cross cultural confirmation, studies which need updating, etc.

Hypothesis

Hypothesis is a tentative solution to our problem, which is tested on the basis of the analysis of the collected data. In a research proposal, researchers should specify one major hypothesis and several minor hypothesis as the case and the need may be. Hypothesis are not just guess work rather depend upon logic and previous knowledge.

These give direction to data gathering and research process. The hypothesis should always be reasonable and consistent with previously known facts/theories. Also, we must state it in such a way that we can test it and find it to be either probably true or probably false. The formulation of the hypothesis in advance of the data gathering process is necessary for an unbiased investigation. It is not appropriate to formulate additional hypothesis after data are collected, but they should be tested on the basis of new data and not on the old data that suggested them.

Methods

In this part of the research proposal, we usually specify the nature of the subjects, selected through sampling procedures, tools to be used and procedures and data analysis.

Subjects The subject section details the population from which the researcher plans to select the sample. The most frequently studied variables are the subjects, age, gender, race, caste, religion, socio-economic status, educational level, IQ, etc. In this section, we also have to describe the size of the sample (the number of the subjects to be studied) and the sampling procedures (how the sample will be selected from the population).

Tools The researcher in the research proposal, should fully describe the tool(s) to be used, the reliability and the validity of the tools(s) and the reason for the selection of that particular tool or tools for data collection. If the researcher is going to develop his/her own tool, then he should outline the procedure he is going to follow in test development and standardisation. So, the use of any reliable and valid tool is inevitable for the collection of evidence or data for the research study.

Procedures This section outlines the research plan. It describes in detail what will be done, how it will be done, what data will be needed and what data gathering devices will be used. There is no single universal procedure which can be followed in all types of research studies, rather it highly depends on our particular research objectives. For example, the procedure of using a mail questionnaire will be totally different from using an interview technique or observation technique.

Data Analysis There are mainly two types of data i.e. qualitative and quantitative. Both the types of data are to be analysed differently. Mostly there are different types of statistical techniques to analyse these two different types of data. What particular is to be used and how the data are to be analysed, depend on our particular study.

If the data are to be processed through a computer this should be explained in a research proposal. We should completely describe our complete data analysis procedure in our proposal, so that the readers may get a clear idea of the research plan.

Summary and Conclusion

This provides the reader a quick review of what has been done to obtain the results. It is the most utilised part of the report. This chapter usually commences with a re-statement of the problem and brief description of the procedures followed by the principal fundings which are presented as suggestions.

References/Bibliography

This provides information regarding the literature materials and the sources used for conducting the study. In our research proposal, we should list all the references that were cited in the text. We should cite in the research proposal, the material that has helped in the preparation of the research proposal.

In this case, we should prepare and present bibliography in which all the relevant references, whether cited or not, are included. This list to be prepared alphabetically and according to the set pattern of writing the references.

Time Schedule

In the research proposal, the researcher should also indicate a realistic time schedule to complete the study/project. It is very helpful for the researcher in terms of both, using time systematically and minimising the natural tendency of procrastination.

Budget Schedule

Conducting research requires a lot of money also. The researcher while preparing a research proposal should estimate the cost of the project, considering the required persons, months and facilities. This budget along with either research proposal should be submitted by the government, private or any other agency for financial assistance. In our research proposal, the researcher should justify the allocation of money for various heads of the budget estimate because the funding agency evaluates very carefully.

Types of Research Proposals

On the basis of the type and purpose of the research study.

Research proposal can broadly be categorised into the following categories

Research Proposal for Degree

This common type of proposal is prepared and presented by those researchers who are required to conduct a research study for the fulfilment of their Master's degree or Doctoral Degree in Education.

Most universities require the beginner researchers to submit the research proposal, which is then evaluated by a committee of experienced experts. These experts determine the significance, utility and feasibility of the proposed study and may suggest some modifications in the research proposal.

Research Proposal for Financial Assistance

Many times conducting a particular research seems to go beyond the budget of the researcher for which he/she requires some financial assistance. He/she then submits the research proposal to a government or private agency, requesting for financial assistance. Such an agency then asks empanelled experts for comments and/or recommendations, after evaluating the proposal and the agency then decides to provide (or not to provide) the financial assistance on the basis of these comments and/or recommendations.

Research Proposal for Grants by Government

Since, various research organisations, such as universities, the UGC, the NCERT and the ICSSR are ear-marking more and more funds at present for a specific purpose of promoting research. More and more colleges and university teachers are becoming motivated to conduct research in their respective areas of concern at school, college or university level. They are also required to submit their research proposal for evaluation and are provided grants if experts recommend so after evaluation of the research proposal.