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Atoms Class 12 Notes Physics Chapter 12

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

All elements are consists of very small invisible particles, called atoms. Atoms of same element are exactly same and atoms of different element are different.

Thomson’s Atomic Model 

Every atom is uniformly positive charged sphere of radius of the order of 10-10 m, in which entire mass is uniformly distributed and negative charged electrons are embedded randomly. The atom as a whole is neutral.

Atoms Class 12 Notes Physics Chapter 12

Limitations of Thomson’s Atomic Model 
1. It could not explain the origin of spectral series of hydrogen and other atoms.
2. It could not explain large angle scattering of α – particles.

Rutherford’s Atomic Model 
On the basis of this experiment, Rutherford made following observations
(i) The entire positive charge and almost entire mass of the atom is concentrated at its centre in a very tiny region of the order of 10-15 m, called nucleus.
(ii) The negatively charged electrons revolve around the nucleus in different orbits.
(iii) The total positive charge of the nucleus is equal to the total negative charge on electron. Therefore atom as a overall is neutral.
(iv) The centripetal force required by electron for revolution is provided by the electrostatic force of attraction between the electrons and the nucleus.

Atoms Class 12 Notes Physics Chapter 12

Distance of Closest Approach

 

When the alpha-particle reaches to the closest distance to the nucleus, it will come to rest and its initial kinetic energy will be completely transformed into potential energy. The distance of closest approach is given as follows:

r= 1 / 4π εo . 2Ze2 / Ek
where, Ek = kinetic energy of the particle, Z = atomic number of the nucleus, e = charge on the electron.

Impact Parameter 

The perpendicular distance of the velocity vector of alpha-particle from the central line of the nucleus, when the particle is far away from the nucleus is called impact parameter.
Impact parameter
Atoms Class 12 Notes Physics Chapter 12where, Z = atomic number of the nucleus, Ek = kinetic energy of the c-particle and θ = angle of scattering.

Rutherford’s Scattering Formula

Atoms Class 12 Notes Physics Chapter 12

where, N(θ) =number of c-particles, Ni = total number of α-particles reach the screen. n = number of atoms per unit volume in the foil, Z = atoms number, E = kinetic energy of the alpha particles and t = foil thickness
Atoms Class 12 Notes Physics Chapter 12

Limitations of Rutherford Atomic Model

(i) About the Stability of Atom According to Maxwell’s electromagnetic wave theory electron should emit energy in the form of electromagnetic wave during its orbital motion. Therefore. radius of orbit of electron will decrease gradually and ultimately it will fall in the nucleus.
(ii) About the Line Spectrum Rutherford atomic model cannot explain atomic line spectrum.


Bohr’s Atomic Model

Electron can revolve in certain non-radiating orbits called stationary or bits for which the angular momentum of electron is an integer multiple of (h / 2π)

mvr = nh / 2π
where n = I, 2. 3,… called principle quantum number.
The radiation of energy occurs only when any electron jumps from one permitted orbit to another permitted orbit.
Energy of emitted photon
hv = E2 – E1
where E1 and E2are energies of electron in orbits.
Radius of orbit of electron is given by
r = n2h2 / 4π2 mK Ze2 ⇒ r ∝ n2 / Z
where, n = principle quantum number, h = Planck’s constant, m = mass of an electron, K = 1 / 4 π ε, Z = atomic number and e = electronic charge.
Velocity of electron in any orbit is given by
v = 2πKZe2 / nh ⇒ v ∝ Z / n
Frequency of electron in any orbit is given by
v = KZe2 / nhr = 4π2Z2e4mK2 / n3 h3
⇒ v prop; Z3 / n3
Kinetic energy of electron in any orbit is given by
E= 2π2me4Z2K2 / n2 h2 = 13.6 Z2 / n2 eV
Potential energy of electron in any orbit is given by
Ep = – 4π2me4Z2K2 / n2 h2 = 27.2 Z2 / n2 eV
⇒ Ep = ∝ Z2 / n2
Total energy of electron in any orbit is given by
E = – 2π2me4Z2K2 / n2 h2 = – 13.6 Z2 / n2 eV

E = -me4 / 8n2 h2εo2 for hydrogen atoms
Wavelength of radiation emitted in the radiation from orbit n2 to n1 is given by
Atoms Class 12 Notes Physics Chapter 12

In quantum mechanics, the energies of a system are discrete or quantized. The energy of a particle of mass m is confined to a box of length L can have discrete values of energy given by the relation
En = n2 h2 / 8mL2 ; n < 1, 2, 3,…

Hydrogen Spectrum Series

Each element emits a spectrum of radiation, which is characteristic of the element itself. The spectrum consists of a set of isolated parallel lines and is called the line spectrum.
Atoms Class 12 Notes Physics Chapter 12

Hydrogen spectrum contains five series
(i) Lyman Series When electron jumps from n = 2, 3,4, …orbit to n = 1 orbit, then a line of Lyman series is obtained.
This series lies in ultra violet region.
(ii) Balmer Series When electron jumps from n = 3, 4, 5,… orbit to n = 2 orbit, then a line of Balmer series is obtained.
This series lies in visual region.
(iii) Paschen Series When electron jumps from n = 4, 5, 6,… orbit to n = 3 orbit, then a line of Paschen series is obtained.
This series lies in infrared region 
(iv) Brackett Series When electron jumps from n = 5,6, 7…. orbit to n = 4 orbit, then a line of Brackett series is obtained.
This series lies in infrared region. 
(v) Pfund Series When electron jumps from n = 6,7,8, … orbit to n = 5 orbit, then a line of Pfund series is obtained.
This series lies in infrared region.

Wave Model

In the presence of strong magnetic field, the four quantum number are
(i) Principle quantum number (n) can have value 1,2, … ∞
(ii) Orbital angular momentum quantum number l can have value 0,1, 2, … ,(n – 1).
(iii) Magnetic quantum number (me) which can have values – I to I.
(iv) Magnetic spin angular momentum quantum number (mswhich can have only two value + 1 / 2.

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FAQs on Atoms Class 12 Notes Physics Chapter 12

1. What is Dalton's Atomic Theory?
Ans. Dalton's Atomic Theory is a scientific theory proposed by John Dalton in the early 19th century. It states that all matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms. According to this theory, atoms of the same element are identical in size, mass, and chemical properties, while atoms of different elements have different properties. Atoms combine in specific ratios to form compounds, and chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms.
2. How did Dalton contribute to the development of atomic theory?
Ans. John Dalton made significant contributions to the development of atomic theory. He conducted experiments and observations that led him to propose his atomic theory. Dalton suggested that elements are made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms, and these atoms combine in specific ratios to form compounds. He also suggested that atoms of the same element are identical in size, mass, and chemical properties. His theory laid the foundation for the modern understanding of atoms and their behavior.
3. What evidence supports Dalton's Atomic Theory?
Ans. Several pieces of evidence support Dalton's Atomic Theory. One of the key pieces of evidence is the law of definite proportions, which states that a compound always contains the same elements in the same proportion by mass. This observation is consistent with the idea that atoms combine in specific ratios to form compounds. Additionally, the law of multiple proportions, which states that when elements combine to form different compounds, the ratios of their masses can be expressed as small whole numbers, further supports the concept of atoms.
4. How does Dalton's Atomic Theory relate to the concept of chemical reactions?
Ans. Dalton's Atomic Theory provides a framework for understanding chemical reactions. According to this theory, chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms. Atoms are neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction, but they can be rearranged to form new compounds. The theory also suggests that the ratios in which atoms combine to form compounds determine the chemical properties and behavior of substances. Thus, Dalton's Atomic Theory helps explain why certain reactions occur and how elements combine to form new substances.
5. How has Dalton's Atomic Theory been modified or updated over time?
Ans. Dalton's Atomic Theory has been modified and updated as our understanding of atoms has advanced. Modern atomic theory incorporates the concept of subatomic particles, such as protons, neutrons, and electrons, which Dalton was unaware of. It also recognizes that atoms are not indivisible, but can be broken down into smaller particles. The discovery of isotopes, which are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons, has further expanded our understanding of atomic structure. Despite these modifications, Dalton's Atomic Theory still forms the basis of our understanding of atoms and their behavior.
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