Human Memory Class 11 Psychology

Nature of Memory

Memory is about keeping and recalling information over time, depending on the type of mental task you need to perform. Sometimes, you might need to remember something briefly, like an unfamiliar phone number until you dial it, or for many years, like the methods of addition and subtraction you learned in school.

Memory is seen as a process with three stages that are connected but distinct:

• Encoding: This is the initial stage where information is recorded so it can be used by our memory. When something catches our attention, it creates neural signals that our brain processes. Encoding involves receiving information and finding some meaning in it, allowing it to be stored for future use.
• Storage: In this second stage, information that has been encoded is kept so it can be accessed later. Storage is about holding onto information over time.
• Retrieval: This is the final stage where we access the stored information when we need it.

 Information Processing Approach :The Stage Model

The Stage Model of Memory compares how we remember things to how a computer works, suggesting that incoming information passes through three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. This idea led to the first memory model introduced by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968, known as the Stage Model.

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Memory Systems: Sensory, Short-Term and Long-Term Memories

The Stage Model of Memory describes three types of memory systems: Sensory Memory, Short-term Memory, and Long-term Memory. Memory involves three main processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Sensory Memory

• Incoming information first goes into sensory memory, also known as sensory registers. 
• This type of memory can hold a lot of information but only for a very short time, typically less than a second. 
• It captures details from all our senses, creating a precise image of what we perceive.

Short-term Memory

• When we focus on certain information, it moves into short-term memory (STM), which keeps a small amount of information for a limited time (about 30 seconds or less). 
• According to Atkinson and Shiffrin, information in STM is mostly encoded based on sound, and if we don’t keep repeating it, we might lose it within that short period.

Long-term Memory

• Materials that survive STM limitations enter long-term memory (LTM), which has a vast capacity and stores information semantically.
• Information in LTM is never forgotten but may be challenging to retrieve, leading to what is perceived as forgetfulness.
• Information travels from sensory memory to STM through selective attention and maintenance rehearsal. Chunking and Elaborative rehearsals help information move from STM to LTM.
• Experiments testing the stage model of memory have shown mixed results regarding the distinction between STM and LTM.

Levels of Processing

In 1972, Craik and Lockhart proposed the levels of processing view, suggesting that how new information is perceived, analyzed, and understood determines how well it will be retained. Although the theory has evolved, its core idea remains the same.

Multiple Levels of Analysis

• Information can be processed at different levels, from shallow to deep.
• Shallow Processing: Involves analyzing physical or structural features of the information.
• Example: Focusing on the shape of letters in the word "cat," regardless of whether it is written in capital or small letters, or the color of the ink.
• Intermediate Level: Involves phonetic processing, where the focus is on the sounds associated with the letters.
• Example: Recognizing "cat" as a word with three specific letters and their associated sounds.
• Deep Processing: Involves semantic processing, where the meaning of the information is analyzed and understood.
• Example: Thinking of a cat as an animal with fur, four legs, a tail, and as a mammal. Imagining a cat and connecting that image to personal experiences.

Memory Retention

• Shallow and Intermediate Processing:
  • Memory produced at these levels is fragile and likely to decay quickly.
• Deep Processing:
  • Information processed at the semantic level is retained for a longer period.
  • Deep processing leads to memory that resists forgetting.

Implications for Learning

• Focus on Meaning:
  • Understanding information in terms of its meaning enhances long-term retention.
  • Rote memorization leads to shallow processing and is less effective for long-term memory.
• Elaborate the Meaning:
  • When learning new material, focus on elaborating the meaning of its contents.
  • Relate new information to other facts, concepts, and personal life experiences.

Types of Long Term Memory

• Declarative Memory relates to information about facts, names, dates, etc. This includes facts such as a rickshaw having three wheels, India gaining independence on August 15, 1947, and knowing that a frog is an amphibian or that you and your friend share the same name. Information in declarative memory can be easily described, unlike that in procedural memory.
• Procedural Memory, also called nondeclarative memory, involves memories for how to perform various tasks and skills, like riding a bicycle, baking a cake, or playing basketball. These memories are practical and application-based and are not easily articulated.

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Declarative Memory

Episodic Memory : Episodic Memory consists of personal life events and experiences. These memories are emotional in nature and relate to the biographical details of our lives. For instance, celebrating the first marriage anniversary or a birthday party with friends.

Semantic Memory :Semantic Memory encompasses general knowledge and awareness. It includes concepts, ideas, and rules of logic.  Examples of semantic memory include knowing that 7 multiplied by 8 equals 56 or that the STD code for New Delhi is 011.

Implicit Memory: We also have information stored that we are not consciously aware of, known as implicit memory. In the priming method, participants see a list of words like garden, playground, house, etc., and then they are shown parts of these words (like gar, pla, ho), along with parts of other words they haven't seen. They complete the parts of familiar words faster than those of unfamiliar words.

Repressed Memories  :Traumatic experiences often cause emotional pain, leading to the repression of painful memories into the unconscious, as Freud suggested. In some cases, individuals may develop psychological amnesia, where they are unable to cope with traumatic events, resulting in generalized forgetfulness. Stress and anxiety, especially during high-pressure situations like examinations, can also lead to temporary memory loss. This phenomenon can be explained by interference theories: proactive interference, where older learning hampers the recall of new information, and retroactive interference, where new learning disrupts the retrieval of previously learned material.

Nature and Causes of Forgetting

• Information that we have stored in our long-term memory is lost somehow.
• The information that needs to be learned was not memorized sufficiently.
• Incorrect encoding of the information.

Key Theories of Forgetting

Ebbinghaus's Experiments:

• Hermann Ebbinghaus was the first to systematically study forgetting by memorising lists of meaningless syllables (like NOK or SEP). He tracked how many attempts it took to relearn the same list after different time periods.
• Forgetting Curve: Ebbinghaus found that forgetting is most rapid in the first nine hours, especially within the first hour. After that, it slows down and stabilises. His early experiments, while not very advanced, greatly influenced memory research. It is now widely accepted that there is a sharp drop in memory retention initially, followed by a gradual decline.

Trace Decay Theory:

• Also known as the disuse theory, it suggests that memories form physical changes in the brain called memory traces.
• When these traces are not used over time, they decay and become inaccessible.
• Criticism: Experiments showed that people who remain awake after learning forget more than those who sleep, contradicting the trace decay theory.

Interference Theory:

• This theory posits that forgetting occurs because different pieces of information in the memory interfere with each other during recall.
  Types of Interference:
• Proactive Interference: Earlier learning interferes with new learning (e.g., knowing English makes it hard to learn French).
• Retroactive Interference: New learning interferes with recalling previous information (e.g., learning French makes it hard to recall English words).
  Example Experiment: Asking someone to learn two lists of nonsense syllables (A and B) and then recall list A. If list B items are recalled instead of list A, it demonstrates interference.

Retrieval Failure Theory:

• Proposed by Tulving and associates, this theory suggests that forgetting occurs due to the absence or inappropriateness of retrieval cues during recall.
• Retrieval Cues: These are aids that help recover stored information.
• Example: Memorizing a list of words from different categories. If you struggle to recall them later, providing the category names can act as effective retrieval cues, significantly improving recall.

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Enhancing Memory 

Mnemonics using Images:

• To remember information, create vivid and interactive images of the material.
• Keyword Method: This method identifies an English word that sounds similar to a foreign language word, which becomes the keyword. It is an easier method than rote learning.
• Method of Loci: This method helps in learning things in a specific order by visualising familiar places or objects and associating them with the material to be remembered.

Mnemonics using Organisation:

This category refers to imposing a particular order on the material to be remembered. The techniques under this category are 

• Chunking: In chunking, several smaller units are combined to form large chunks. For creating chunks, it is important to discover some organisation principles, which can link smaller units. Therefore, apart from being a control mechanism to increase the capacity of short-term memory, chunking can be used to improve memory as well.
• First Letter Technique: This method involves picking the first letter of each word to be remembered and arranging them logically to form another word or sentence. For example, colours of a rainbow are remembered in this way (VIBGYOR - that stands for Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, and Red).
• Deep Level Processing: If you want to memorise any information well, engage in deep level processing. . Craik and Lockhart have demonstrated that processing information in terms of meaning that they convey leads to better memory as compared to attending to their surface features .This involves asking as many questions related to the information as possible, considering its meaning, and examining its relationships to the facts you already know. This method enhances memory by integrating new information into your existing knowledge framework.
• Minimise Interference: Interference is a major cause of forgetting. To improve memory, it is crucial to minimise interference by managing the various factors that affect memory, such as health status, interest, motivation, and familiarity with the subject matter.
• Use Retrieval Cues: To enhance memory, identify retrieval cues within your study material and connect them to key parts of the content. Remembering these cues is easier than recalling the entire material, and the associations you create will aid the retrieval process. 
• Thomas and Robinson's PQRST method : Preview, Question, Read, Self-recitation, and Test—can improve retention. Begin by previewing the chapter to understand its structure, raise questions, read to find answers, recite what you’ve learned, and test your understanding. This structured approach reinforces comprehension and memory effectively.

A Comprehensive Approach to Memory Improvement

A more comprehensive approach to memory improvement has been suggested by many psychologists. This approach emphasises applying knowledge about memory processes to the task of memory improvement. In order to improve your memory, you need to attend to a wide variety of factors that affect your memory, such as your health status, your interest and motivation, and your familiarity with the subject matter.