Page 1
Genetics
Genetics is a branch of biology dealing with inheritance and variation
of characters from parents of offspring.
Inheritance
Process by which characters are passed on from parent to progeny
Variation
Degree by which the progeny differs from its parents
Mendel’s Experiments
? Gregor Johann Mendel known as the father of genetics proposed the
laws of inheritance.
? He used garden pea as his sample.
? Large sampling size gave credibility to his collected data.
? Garden pea plant possessed certain completely opposite traits.
Example - tall and dwarf plants
? He worked on the following ?seven ? traits of garden pea:
S. No. Character Dominant Recessive
1 Stem height Tall Dwarf
2 Flower colour Violet White
3 Flower position Axial Terminal
4 Pod shape Inflated Constricted
5 Pod colour Green Yellow
Page 2
Genetics
Genetics is a branch of biology dealing with inheritance and variation
of characters from parents of offspring.
Inheritance
Process by which characters are passed on from parent to progeny
Variation
Degree by which the progeny differs from its parents
Mendel’s Experiments
? Gregor Johann Mendel known as the father of genetics proposed the
laws of inheritance.
? He used garden pea as his sample.
? Large sampling size gave credibility to his collected data.
? Garden pea plant possessed certain completely opposite traits.
Example - tall and dwarf plants
? He worked on the following ?seven ? traits of garden pea:
S. No. Character Dominant Recessive
1 Stem height Tall Dwarf
2 Flower colour Violet White
3 Flower position Axial Terminal
4 Pod shape Inflated Constricted
5 Pod colour Green Yellow
6 Seed shape Round Wrinkled
7 Seed colour Yellow Green
? True breeding pea lines were obtained by continuous self pollination
for several generations.
? Fourteen true breeding pea lines were selected as pairs, which were
similar except for one character with contrasting traits.
? Artificial cross pollination (hybridisation) was performed on such
varieties to obtain first hybrid generation known as the first filial
progeny or F ? 1 ? .
Inheritance of One Gene
? After hybridisation, the F ? 1 ? generation so obtained resembled only one
of its parents (say, all tall; no dwarf).
? When 2 plants from F ? 1 ? generation were self pollinated, the second filial
progeny or F ? 2 ? generation was obtained.
? Revival of unexpressed trait (dwarf) was observed in some F ? 2 ? progeny.
Both traits, tall and dwarf, were expressed in F ? 2 ? in ratio 3:1.
? Mendel proposed that something is being passed unchanged from
generation to generation. He called these things as ‘factors’ (presently
called genes).
? Factors contain and carry hereditary information.
? Alleles - Slightly different form of same factor
Two alleles code for a pair of two contrasting traits. (e.g., tall and dwarf)
Monohybrid Cross
? Cross that considers only a single character (e.g., height of the part)
Page 3
Genetics
Genetics is a branch of biology dealing with inheritance and variation
of characters from parents of offspring.
Inheritance
Process by which characters are passed on from parent to progeny
Variation
Degree by which the progeny differs from its parents
Mendel’s Experiments
? Gregor Johann Mendel known as the father of genetics proposed the
laws of inheritance.
? He used garden pea as his sample.
? Large sampling size gave credibility to his collected data.
? Garden pea plant possessed certain completely opposite traits.
Example - tall and dwarf plants
? He worked on the following ?seven ? traits of garden pea:
S. No. Character Dominant Recessive
1 Stem height Tall Dwarf
2 Flower colour Violet White
3 Flower position Axial Terminal
4 Pod shape Inflated Constricted
5 Pod colour Green Yellow
6 Seed shape Round Wrinkled
7 Seed colour Yellow Green
? True breeding pea lines were obtained by continuous self pollination
for several generations.
? Fourteen true breeding pea lines were selected as pairs, which were
similar except for one character with contrasting traits.
? Artificial cross pollination (hybridisation) was performed on such
varieties to obtain first hybrid generation known as the first filial
progeny or F ? 1 ? .
Inheritance of One Gene
? After hybridisation, the F ? 1 ? generation so obtained resembled only one
of its parents (say, all tall; no dwarf).
? When 2 plants from F ? 1 ? generation were self pollinated, the second filial
progeny or F ? 2 ? generation was obtained.
? Revival of unexpressed trait (dwarf) was observed in some F ? 2 ? progeny.
Both traits, tall and dwarf, were expressed in F ? 2 ? in ratio 3:1.
? Mendel proposed that something is being passed unchanged from
generation to generation. He called these things as ‘factors’ (presently
called genes).
? Factors contain and carry hereditary information.
? Alleles - Slightly different form of same factor
Two alleles code for a pair of two contrasting traits. (e.g., tall and dwarf)
Monohybrid Cross
? Cross that considers only a single character (e.g., height of the part)
?
? Studying the cross:
? TT, tt, and Tt are genotypes while the traits, tall and dwarf, are
phenotypes.
? T stands for tall trait while t stands for dwarf trait.
? Even if a single ‘T’ is present in the genotype, phenotype is ‘tall’.
When ‘T’ and ‘t’ are present together, ‘T’ dominates and
suppresses the expression of ‘t’. Therefore, T (for tallness) is
dominant trait while t (for dwarfness) is recessive trait.
? TT and tt are homozygous while Tt is heterozygous.
? From the cross, it can be found that alleles of parental pair
separate or segregate from each other and only one allele is
transmitted to the gamete.
? Gametes of TT will have only T alleles; gametes of tt will have
only t alleles, but gametes of Tt will have both T and t alleles.
? Punnett square
? Graphical representation to calculate the probability of all
possible genotypes of offsprings in a genetic cross
? Possible gametes are written on two sides, usually at top row
and left columns, and combinations are represented in boxes.
Page 4
Genetics
Genetics is a branch of biology dealing with inheritance and variation
of characters from parents of offspring.
Inheritance
Process by which characters are passed on from parent to progeny
Variation
Degree by which the progeny differs from its parents
Mendel’s Experiments
? Gregor Johann Mendel known as the father of genetics proposed the
laws of inheritance.
? He used garden pea as his sample.
? Large sampling size gave credibility to his collected data.
? Garden pea plant possessed certain completely opposite traits.
Example - tall and dwarf plants
? He worked on the following ?seven ? traits of garden pea:
S. No. Character Dominant Recessive
1 Stem height Tall Dwarf
2 Flower colour Violet White
3 Flower position Axial Terminal
4 Pod shape Inflated Constricted
5 Pod colour Green Yellow
6 Seed shape Round Wrinkled
7 Seed colour Yellow Green
? True breeding pea lines were obtained by continuous self pollination
for several generations.
? Fourteen true breeding pea lines were selected as pairs, which were
similar except for one character with contrasting traits.
? Artificial cross pollination (hybridisation) was performed on such
varieties to obtain first hybrid generation known as the first filial
progeny or F ? 1 ? .
Inheritance of One Gene
? After hybridisation, the F ? 1 ? generation so obtained resembled only one
of its parents (say, all tall; no dwarf).
? When 2 plants from F ? 1 ? generation were self pollinated, the second filial
progeny or F ? 2 ? generation was obtained.
? Revival of unexpressed trait (dwarf) was observed in some F ? 2 ? progeny.
Both traits, tall and dwarf, were expressed in F ? 2 ? in ratio 3:1.
? Mendel proposed that something is being passed unchanged from
generation to generation. He called these things as ‘factors’ (presently
called genes).
? Factors contain and carry hereditary information.
? Alleles - Slightly different form of same factor
Two alleles code for a pair of two contrasting traits. (e.g., tall and dwarf)
Monohybrid Cross
? Cross that considers only a single character (e.g., height of the part)
?
? Studying the cross:
? TT, tt, and Tt are genotypes while the traits, tall and dwarf, are
phenotypes.
? T stands for tall trait while t stands for dwarf trait.
? Even if a single ‘T’ is present in the genotype, phenotype is ‘tall’.
When ‘T’ and ‘t’ are present together, ‘T’ dominates and
suppresses the expression of ‘t’. Therefore, T (for tallness) is
dominant trait while t (for dwarfness) is recessive trait.
? TT and tt are homozygous while Tt is heterozygous.
? From the cross, it can be found that alleles of parental pair
separate or segregate from each other and only one allele is
transmitted to the gamete.
? Gametes of TT will have only T alleles; gametes of tt will have
only t alleles, but gametes of Tt will have both T and t alleles.
? Punnett square
? Graphical representation to calculate the probability of all
possible genotypes of offsprings in a genetic cross
? Possible gametes are written on two sides, usually at top row
and left columns, and combinations are represented in boxes.
? With the help of Punnet square, genotypic ratio in F ? 2 ? generation
can be found. From the above given Punnet square, it is evident
that genotypic ratio TT: Tt: tt is 1:2:1.
? The ratio 1:2:1 or of TT: Tt: tt can be derived from
binomial expression ( ?ax ? + ?by ?) ? 2 ? .
? Gametebearing genes are in equal frequency of .
? Hence, the expression can be expanded as
Law of Dominance, Test Cross, Law of Segregation & Incomplete
Dominance
Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance
? Based on his experiments, Mendel proposed three laws or principles of
inheritance:
? Law of Dominance
? Law of Segregation
Page 5
Genetics
Genetics is a branch of biology dealing with inheritance and variation
of characters from parents of offspring.
Inheritance
Process by which characters are passed on from parent to progeny
Variation
Degree by which the progeny differs from its parents
Mendel’s Experiments
? Gregor Johann Mendel known as the father of genetics proposed the
laws of inheritance.
? He used garden pea as his sample.
? Large sampling size gave credibility to his collected data.
? Garden pea plant possessed certain completely opposite traits.
Example - tall and dwarf plants
? He worked on the following ?seven ? traits of garden pea:
S. No. Character Dominant Recessive
1 Stem height Tall Dwarf
2 Flower colour Violet White
3 Flower position Axial Terminal
4 Pod shape Inflated Constricted
5 Pod colour Green Yellow
6 Seed shape Round Wrinkled
7 Seed colour Yellow Green
? True breeding pea lines were obtained by continuous self pollination
for several generations.
? Fourteen true breeding pea lines were selected as pairs, which were
similar except for one character with contrasting traits.
? Artificial cross pollination (hybridisation) was performed on such
varieties to obtain first hybrid generation known as the first filial
progeny or F ? 1 ? .
Inheritance of One Gene
? After hybridisation, the F ? 1 ? generation so obtained resembled only one
of its parents (say, all tall; no dwarf).
? When 2 plants from F ? 1 ? generation were self pollinated, the second filial
progeny or F ? 2 ? generation was obtained.
? Revival of unexpressed trait (dwarf) was observed in some F ? 2 ? progeny.
Both traits, tall and dwarf, were expressed in F ? 2 ? in ratio 3:1.
? Mendel proposed that something is being passed unchanged from
generation to generation. He called these things as ‘factors’ (presently
called genes).
? Factors contain and carry hereditary information.
? Alleles - Slightly different form of same factor
Two alleles code for a pair of two contrasting traits. (e.g., tall and dwarf)
Monohybrid Cross
? Cross that considers only a single character (e.g., height of the part)
?
? Studying the cross:
? TT, tt, and Tt are genotypes while the traits, tall and dwarf, are
phenotypes.
? T stands for tall trait while t stands for dwarf trait.
? Even if a single ‘T’ is present in the genotype, phenotype is ‘tall’.
When ‘T’ and ‘t’ are present together, ‘T’ dominates and
suppresses the expression of ‘t’. Therefore, T (for tallness) is
dominant trait while t (for dwarfness) is recessive trait.
? TT and tt are homozygous while Tt is heterozygous.
? From the cross, it can be found that alleles of parental pair
separate or segregate from each other and only one allele is
transmitted to the gamete.
? Gametes of TT will have only T alleles; gametes of tt will have
only t alleles, but gametes of Tt will have both T and t alleles.
? Punnett square
? Graphical representation to calculate the probability of all
possible genotypes of offsprings in a genetic cross
? Possible gametes are written on two sides, usually at top row
and left columns, and combinations are represented in boxes.
? With the help of Punnet square, genotypic ratio in F ? 2 ? generation
can be found. From the above given Punnet square, it is evident
that genotypic ratio TT: Tt: tt is 1:2:1.
? The ratio 1:2:1 or of TT: Tt: tt can be derived from
binomial expression ( ?ax ? + ?by ?) ? 2 ? .
? Gametebearing genes are in equal frequency of .
? Hence, the expression can be expanded as
Law of Dominance, Test Cross, Law of Segregation & Incomplete
Dominance
Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance
? Based on his experiments, Mendel proposed three laws or principles of
inheritance:
? Law of Dominance
? Law of Segregation
? Law of Independent Assortment
? Law of dominance and law of segregation are based on monohybrid
cross while law of independent assortment is based on dihybrid cross.
Law of Dominance
? According to this law, characters are controlled by discrete units called
factors, which occur in pairs with one member of the pair dominating
over the other in a dissimilar pair.
? This law explains expression of only one of the parental character in F ? 1
generation and expression of both in F ? 2 ? generation.
Test Cross
? Cross between F ? 2 ? progeny and its homozygous recessive parent
? This cross determines whether the dominant character is coming from
homozygous dominant genotype or heterozygous genotype. (e.g.,
tallness coming from TT or Tt)
? When TT is crossed with tt, we obtain all Tt (tall) individuals in the
progeny. Whereas when Tt is crossed with tt, we obtain Tt (tall) and tt
(dwarf) individuals in the progeny.
? Therefore, if tallness is coming from TT, then we obtain all tall
progenies in test cross. We obtain both tall and dwarf varieties in test
cross, if tallness is coming from Tt.
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