Social Action Theories | Sociology for A Level - Year 13 PDF Download

Action Theory

Max Weber

Max Weber emphasized that to fully understand human behavior, sociologists must examine the meanings behind individuals’ actions. He categorized actions into four ideal types.

Instrumentally Rational Action

• Instrumentally rational action involves individuals pursuing a goal in the most efficient way possible. 
• Different individuals may use varied methods to achieve the same objective.
  Example: Studying for a degree to secure a desirable job.

Value-Rational Action

• Value-rational action occurs when individuals pursue a goal based on its personal significance rather than its practical benefits. 
• The desirability of the goal outweighs concerns about the efficiency of the means.
• Example: Attending university because it aligns with family expectations.

Traditional Action

Traditional action stems from established customs or routines that are followed unquestioningly because they are habitual.
Example: Having Sunday lunch with family or observing religious holidays.

Affective Action

Affective action is driven by emotions and feelings, lacking rational reasoning, making it the most irrational type of social action.
Example: Crying at a funeral, celebrating a success, or attending university due to a passion for learning.

Symbolic Interactionism

George Mead

Mead proposed that individuals form their identities based on the labels others assign to them. He believed people interact using symbols such as words, facial expressions, or gestures.

Symbolic Meanings

• The challenge with symbols is that their meanings vary depending on the person and context. 
• Unlike animals acting on instinct, humans evaluate social situations by imagining themselves in others’ perspectives.

‘I and Me’
Mead described the ‘I and me’ concept, where individuals present a ‘me’—a modified version of themselves—to fit social expectations, rather than showing their true ‘I’ self.

Erving Goffman
Goffman introduced the dramaturgical model, likening life to a theatrical performance where individuals are social actors, constantly shifting between ‘upstage’ (public) and ‘backstage’ (private) personas.

The Dramaturgical Model
Goffman argued that the social self is a performance, a constructed persona designed to appeal to a specific audience, which he called ‘impression management.’ Each person has a public persona they present to the world.

The ‘Looking-Glass Self’
Charles Cooley’s ‘looking-glass self’ theory suggests that individuals shape their self-concept by internalizing the labels others place on them. This process alters how individuals perceive themselves, often adopting the imposed labels.