Sources of Ancient History of Odisha | Odisha State PSC (OPSC): Preparation - OPSC OCS (Odisha) PDF Download

 Page 1


 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 Introduction 
History writing is not possible without sources because as it plays an important role. 
History without sources is not history rather it may be considered as a part of literature or 
anything else. The historical sources provide us the scientific and rational base for writing 
history.   There are many gaps between different periods of ancient Odishan history. with the 
availability of new source materials, old ideas have been changed and history has been 
reconstructed with the new facts. Similarly, many missing links have been established in 
Odishan history due to the discovery of new source materials. Therefore, sources represent the 
heart and soul of all kinds of history of any state. 
   Sources of ancient history of Odisha 
The history of Odisha is based on various available sources. There are several sources 
like Literary Sources, Foreign Accounts, Inscriptions, Coins, Material Remains, Madala Panji etc, which 
helps us in writing the history of Odisha, which can be discussed as follows: 
Literary sources 
  The literary sources provide a lot of information for the reconstruction of the history of a 
nation as literature is considered as the mirror of the society. Numerous literature speaks about 
the glory of the Odisha in different ways in different periods.  
 The epics 
The Mahabharata makes the earliest reference to Kalinga and Odra. The Mahabharata 
mentions about this land and its sacred river Vaitarani and Goddess Viraja. In this epic the sage 
Lomasa advised the Pandavas to visit to river Vaitarani to take a holy deep in the river and to 
wash away all their sins. On the other hand, the Ramayana refers to Kalinganagara situated to the 
west of river Gomati and refers to the Gandhamardana and Utkala associating it with Mekala and 
Page 2


 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 Introduction 
History writing is not possible without sources because as it plays an important role. 
History without sources is not history rather it may be considered as a part of literature or 
anything else. The historical sources provide us the scientific and rational base for writing 
history.   There are many gaps between different periods of ancient Odishan history. with the 
availability of new source materials, old ideas have been changed and history has been 
reconstructed with the new facts. Similarly, many missing links have been established in 
Odishan history due to the discovery of new source materials. Therefore, sources represent the 
heart and soul of all kinds of history of any state. 
   Sources of ancient history of Odisha 
The history of Odisha is based on various available sources. There are several sources 
like Literary Sources, Foreign Accounts, Inscriptions, Coins, Material Remains, Madala Panji etc, which 
helps us in writing the history of Odisha, which can be discussed as follows: 
Literary sources 
  The literary sources provide a lot of information for the reconstruction of the history of a 
nation as literature is considered as the mirror of the society. Numerous literature speaks about 
the glory of the Odisha in different ways in different periods.  
 The epics 
The Mahabharata makes the earliest reference to Kalinga and Odra. The Mahabharata 
mentions about this land and its sacred river Vaitarani and Goddess Viraja. In this epic the sage 
Lomasa advised the Pandavas to visit to river Vaitarani to take a holy deep in the river and to 
wash away all their sins. On the other hand, the Ramayana refers to Kalinganagara situated to the 
west of river Gomati and refers to the Gandhamardana and Utkala associating it with Mekala and 
 
Dasarna countries. Further, different Puranas like Vayu Purana, Mastya Purana, Bhagavata, 
Harivamsa Purana and Vishnu Purana etc. throw light on Kalinaga and Utkala and legendary 
kings. The Kapila Samhita and Prachi Mahatmya are also considered as the sources of Odishan 
history.  
 The Jaina sources 
The Jaina literature contains descriptions of Kalinga and Utkala.  In ancient time the 
people of Odisha were largely the followers of Jainism and Buddhism. So, the Jaina and 
Buddhist literature narrates about the people of ancient Odisha and its culture.  The Avasyaka 
Niryukti reveals that Aranatha, the eighteenth Jaina Tirthankara had achieved his first goal in the 
city of Rayapura which was said to be a capital city of Kalinga. Further, it states that how 
Mahavira, while travelling in Tosali was tortured by the local people who took him to be a thief 
and he was rescued by the timely interference of the Tosali-Kshatriyas. It also refers to the city 
of Dantapura. The Jaina Harivamsa gives a genealogy of the Chedis describing Abhichandra as 
the founder of that dynasty in Kosala region.  
 The Buddhist sources 
   The Buddhist literature also contains descriptions of Kalinga and Utkala. The Buddhist 
literature also reflects the history of ancient Odisha. The Mahagovinda Suttanta of Digha Nikaya, 
mentions 'Kalinga-rattha' (Kalinga Rashtra) along with its capital Dantapura. The 'Upalisutta' of 
Majjhima Nikaya describes how king Nalikira of Kalinga breathed his last as a consequence of 
his ill treatment towards some innocent ascetics. Kalinga and Utkala find mention in 
Kurudharma Jataka, vessantara Jataka, Kumbhakara Jataka, Kalinga Bodhi Jataka etc. 
Mahaparinirvana Sutta, Dathavemsa, Dighanikaya and Mahavastu also throw light on Utkala 
and Kallhga. Jatakas like Kurudharma, Kalinga Bodhi, Sarabhanga, etc. furnish information 
about Odisha. Majjim Nikaya and Mahabhagga describe the meeting of the two merchants, 
Tapassu and Bhallika of Utkala with Lord Buddha. A Buddhist work named Gandavyuha 
describes that Tosala was a prosperous kingdom in Kalinga in 3
rd
 century A.D.  The Dipavamsa 
and Mahavamsa, the two   Buddhist works mentions about the friendly relationship between 
Kalinga and the Ceylon. The Chulavamsa also depicts about the frequent visit of the king of 
Kalinga to Ceylon. 
 
 
Page 3


 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 Introduction 
History writing is not possible without sources because as it plays an important role. 
History without sources is not history rather it may be considered as a part of literature or 
anything else. The historical sources provide us the scientific and rational base for writing 
history.   There are many gaps between different periods of ancient Odishan history. with the 
availability of new source materials, old ideas have been changed and history has been 
reconstructed with the new facts. Similarly, many missing links have been established in 
Odishan history due to the discovery of new source materials. Therefore, sources represent the 
heart and soul of all kinds of history of any state. 
   Sources of ancient history of Odisha 
The history of Odisha is based on various available sources. There are several sources 
like Literary Sources, Foreign Accounts, Inscriptions, Coins, Material Remains, Madala Panji etc, which 
helps us in writing the history of Odisha, which can be discussed as follows: 
Literary sources 
  The literary sources provide a lot of information for the reconstruction of the history of a 
nation as literature is considered as the mirror of the society. Numerous literature speaks about 
the glory of the Odisha in different ways in different periods.  
 The epics 
The Mahabharata makes the earliest reference to Kalinga and Odra. The Mahabharata 
mentions about this land and its sacred river Vaitarani and Goddess Viraja. In this epic the sage 
Lomasa advised the Pandavas to visit to river Vaitarani to take a holy deep in the river and to 
wash away all their sins. On the other hand, the Ramayana refers to Kalinganagara situated to the 
west of river Gomati and refers to the Gandhamardana and Utkala associating it with Mekala and 
 
Dasarna countries. Further, different Puranas like Vayu Purana, Mastya Purana, Bhagavata, 
Harivamsa Purana and Vishnu Purana etc. throw light on Kalinaga and Utkala and legendary 
kings. The Kapila Samhita and Prachi Mahatmya are also considered as the sources of Odishan 
history.  
 The Jaina sources 
The Jaina literature contains descriptions of Kalinga and Utkala.  In ancient time the 
people of Odisha were largely the followers of Jainism and Buddhism. So, the Jaina and 
Buddhist literature narrates about the people of ancient Odisha and its culture.  The Avasyaka 
Niryukti reveals that Aranatha, the eighteenth Jaina Tirthankara had achieved his first goal in the 
city of Rayapura which was said to be a capital city of Kalinga. Further, it states that how 
Mahavira, while travelling in Tosali was tortured by the local people who took him to be a thief 
and he was rescued by the timely interference of the Tosali-Kshatriyas. It also refers to the city 
of Dantapura. The Jaina Harivamsa gives a genealogy of the Chedis describing Abhichandra as 
the founder of that dynasty in Kosala region.  
 The Buddhist sources 
   The Buddhist literature also contains descriptions of Kalinga and Utkala. The Buddhist 
literature also reflects the history of ancient Odisha. The Mahagovinda Suttanta of Digha Nikaya, 
mentions 'Kalinga-rattha' (Kalinga Rashtra) along with its capital Dantapura. The 'Upalisutta' of 
Majjhima Nikaya describes how king Nalikira of Kalinga breathed his last as a consequence of 
his ill treatment towards some innocent ascetics. Kalinga and Utkala find mention in 
Kurudharma Jataka, vessantara Jataka, Kumbhakara Jataka, Kalinga Bodhi Jataka etc. 
Mahaparinirvana Sutta, Dathavemsa, Dighanikaya and Mahavastu also throw light on Utkala 
and Kallhga. Jatakas like Kurudharma, Kalinga Bodhi, Sarabhanga, etc. furnish information 
about Odisha. Majjim Nikaya and Mahabhagga describe the meeting of the two merchants, 
Tapassu and Bhallika of Utkala with Lord Buddha. A Buddhist work named Gandavyuha 
describes that Tosala was a prosperous kingdom in Kalinga in 3
rd
 century A.D.  The Dipavamsa 
and Mahavamsa, the two   Buddhist works mentions about the friendly relationship between 
Kalinga and the Ceylon. The Chulavamsa also depicts about the frequent visit of the king of 
Kalinga to Ceylon. 
 
 
 
Other important ancient literature 
  The Arthasastra of Kautilya composed in 4th century B.C. is a standard treatise on polity  
and statecraft which influenced the political organisations of Kalinga. Among other such works 
mention may be made of the legal texts Iike the Smritis of Manu, Narada, Brhaspati, Katyayana, 
Yajnavalkya and Kamandaka which have moulded the political systems of Odisha. On the other 
hand, the Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira, Astadhyayi of Panini and Kamasutra of Vatsyana also 
throw welcome light on the socio-religious and economic condition of ancient Odisha. 
In the Baudhayana Dharmasastra, the kalinga has been described as an impure country. 
The Natyasastra of Bharat of depicts Kosala, Tosala and Kalinga as the southern countries. 
Kalidasa’s Raghuvmasam narrates Kalinga and Utkala. Banabhattas’s Harshacharita mentions 
about the king of Kalinga. Harshavardhan’s Ratnavali also mentions about Kalinga. Further, the 
post-Sangam literatures like Silpadikaram and Manimekalai of 2
nd
 century A.D. mentions about 
Kalinga. Among the real historical works relating ancient Odisha, mention may be made of 
Gaudavaho by Vakpatiraja (cir. 725 A.D.). This gives an account of the conquests of 
Yasovarman of Kanauj. 
Literary sources during Ganga period 
 The Ganga literature are a great source of the time for socio-religious and economic 
study of Odisha. The Ganga period also saw the development of Sanskrit literature of which 
reference can be made of Murari’s Anargharaghava Natakam which was staged at Puri during a 
Car festival of Lord Jagannath. Sri Harsha’s Naishad Charita Mahakavyam mentions about the 
cowrie cells as currency prevalent in Odisha during medieval period, chewing of betel by the 
people of Odisha and Jagannatha’s procession from the temple to platform (mancha) on the 
fullmoon day of Jeyestha. On the other hand, two treaties on astrology 'Bhasvati' and 'Satananda 
Ratnamala' and a legal text 'Satananda Samgraha' by Satananda Acharya in the latter half of 11
th
  
century A.D. throw light on socio-economic aspects.  Vidyadhara's Alankar work 'Ekavali" 
composed in 13
th
 century A.D., describes the encounters of the Ganga Emperor Narasimhadeva 
with the Sultans of Delhi and Bengal. Visvanatha Kaviraja, the author of the famous 'Sahitya 
Darpana' has written 'Chandrakala Nataka' which hints at the military victories of his patron 
Gajapati Nisanka Bhanudeva or Bhanu IV (1407-37 A.D.) against the Sultan of Bengal. The 
Chandrakala Natika is a great work during the Ganga rule. One of the masterpieces in Vaishnava 
literature during the Ganga period was the marvelous work of Jayadeva’s Gitagovindam. 
Page 4


 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 Introduction 
History writing is not possible without sources because as it plays an important role. 
History without sources is not history rather it may be considered as a part of literature or 
anything else. The historical sources provide us the scientific and rational base for writing 
history.   There are many gaps between different periods of ancient Odishan history. with the 
availability of new source materials, old ideas have been changed and history has been 
reconstructed with the new facts. Similarly, many missing links have been established in 
Odishan history due to the discovery of new source materials. Therefore, sources represent the 
heart and soul of all kinds of history of any state. 
   Sources of ancient history of Odisha 
The history of Odisha is based on various available sources. There are several sources 
like Literary Sources, Foreign Accounts, Inscriptions, Coins, Material Remains, Madala Panji etc, which 
helps us in writing the history of Odisha, which can be discussed as follows: 
Literary sources 
  The literary sources provide a lot of information for the reconstruction of the history of a 
nation as literature is considered as the mirror of the society. Numerous literature speaks about 
the glory of the Odisha in different ways in different periods.  
 The epics 
The Mahabharata makes the earliest reference to Kalinga and Odra. The Mahabharata 
mentions about this land and its sacred river Vaitarani and Goddess Viraja. In this epic the sage 
Lomasa advised the Pandavas to visit to river Vaitarani to take a holy deep in the river and to 
wash away all their sins. On the other hand, the Ramayana refers to Kalinganagara situated to the 
west of river Gomati and refers to the Gandhamardana and Utkala associating it with Mekala and 
 
Dasarna countries. Further, different Puranas like Vayu Purana, Mastya Purana, Bhagavata, 
Harivamsa Purana and Vishnu Purana etc. throw light on Kalinaga and Utkala and legendary 
kings. The Kapila Samhita and Prachi Mahatmya are also considered as the sources of Odishan 
history.  
 The Jaina sources 
The Jaina literature contains descriptions of Kalinga and Utkala.  In ancient time the 
people of Odisha were largely the followers of Jainism and Buddhism. So, the Jaina and 
Buddhist literature narrates about the people of ancient Odisha and its culture.  The Avasyaka 
Niryukti reveals that Aranatha, the eighteenth Jaina Tirthankara had achieved his first goal in the 
city of Rayapura which was said to be a capital city of Kalinga. Further, it states that how 
Mahavira, while travelling in Tosali was tortured by the local people who took him to be a thief 
and he was rescued by the timely interference of the Tosali-Kshatriyas. It also refers to the city 
of Dantapura. The Jaina Harivamsa gives a genealogy of the Chedis describing Abhichandra as 
the founder of that dynasty in Kosala region.  
 The Buddhist sources 
   The Buddhist literature also contains descriptions of Kalinga and Utkala. The Buddhist 
literature also reflects the history of ancient Odisha. The Mahagovinda Suttanta of Digha Nikaya, 
mentions 'Kalinga-rattha' (Kalinga Rashtra) along with its capital Dantapura. The 'Upalisutta' of 
Majjhima Nikaya describes how king Nalikira of Kalinga breathed his last as a consequence of 
his ill treatment towards some innocent ascetics. Kalinga and Utkala find mention in 
Kurudharma Jataka, vessantara Jataka, Kumbhakara Jataka, Kalinga Bodhi Jataka etc. 
Mahaparinirvana Sutta, Dathavemsa, Dighanikaya and Mahavastu also throw light on Utkala 
and Kallhga. Jatakas like Kurudharma, Kalinga Bodhi, Sarabhanga, etc. furnish information 
about Odisha. Majjim Nikaya and Mahabhagga describe the meeting of the two merchants, 
Tapassu and Bhallika of Utkala with Lord Buddha. A Buddhist work named Gandavyuha 
describes that Tosala was a prosperous kingdom in Kalinga in 3
rd
 century A.D.  The Dipavamsa 
and Mahavamsa, the two   Buddhist works mentions about the friendly relationship between 
Kalinga and the Ceylon. The Chulavamsa also depicts about the frequent visit of the king of 
Kalinga to Ceylon. 
 
 
 
Other important ancient literature 
  The Arthasastra of Kautilya composed in 4th century B.C. is a standard treatise on polity  
and statecraft which influenced the political organisations of Kalinga. Among other such works 
mention may be made of the legal texts Iike the Smritis of Manu, Narada, Brhaspati, Katyayana, 
Yajnavalkya and Kamandaka which have moulded the political systems of Odisha. On the other 
hand, the Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira, Astadhyayi of Panini and Kamasutra of Vatsyana also 
throw welcome light on the socio-religious and economic condition of ancient Odisha. 
In the Baudhayana Dharmasastra, the kalinga has been described as an impure country. 
The Natyasastra of Bharat of depicts Kosala, Tosala and Kalinga as the southern countries. 
Kalidasa’s Raghuvmasam narrates Kalinga and Utkala. Banabhattas’s Harshacharita mentions 
about the king of Kalinga. Harshavardhan’s Ratnavali also mentions about Kalinga. Further, the 
post-Sangam literatures like Silpadikaram and Manimekalai of 2
nd
 century A.D. mentions about 
Kalinga. Among the real historical works relating ancient Odisha, mention may be made of 
Gaudavaho by Vakpatiraja (cir. 725 A.D.). This gives an account of the conquests of 
Yasovarman of Kanauj. 
Literary sources during Ganga period 
 The Ganga literature are a great source of the time for socio-religious and economic 
study of Odisha. The Ganga period also saw the development of Sanskrit literature of which 
reference can be made of Murari’s Anargharaghava Natakam which was staged at Puri during a 
Car festival of Lord Jagannath. Sri Harsha’s Naishad Charita Mahakavyam mentions about the 
cowrie cells as currency prevalent in Odisha during medieval period, chewing of betel by the 
people of Odisha and Jagannatha’s procession from the temple to platform (mancha) on the 
fullmoon day of Jeyestha. On the other hand, two treaties on astrology 'Bhasvati' and 'Satananda 
Ratnamala' and a legal text 'Satananda Samgraha' by Satananda Acharya in the latter half of 11
th
  
century A.D. throw light on socio-economic aspects.  Vidyadhara's Alankar work 'Ekavali" 
composed in 13
th
 century A.D., describes the encounters of the Ganga Emperor Narasimhadeva 
with the Sultans of Delhi and Bengal. Visvanatha Kaviraja, the author of the famous 'Sahitya 
Darpana' has written 'Chandrakala Nataka' which hints at the military victories of his patron 
Gajapati Nisanka Bhanudeva or Bhanu IV (1407-37 A.D.) against the Sultan of Bengal. The 
Chandrakala Natika is a great work during the Ganga rule. One of the masterpieces in Vaishnava 
literature during the Ganga period was the marvelous work of Jayadeva’s Gitagovindam. 
 
Thus, the ancient literature gives a wide range of knowledge regarding the social, political, 
economic, religious and cultural life of the people of ancient Odisha.  
 Foreign Accounts 
The foreign accounts also give a good account of knowledge on ancient Kalinga. The 
Greek historians like Pilny, Diodorus, Curtius, Plutarch have mentioned about the people of 
Kalinga. Megasthenes refers to Gangaridum Calingarum Regia (Gangetic Kalinga Region). Pliny 
divides Kalinga into three divisions-Gangarides (Gangetic), Maceo (Middle) and Calingae 
(Kalinga). "The Peri plus of the Erythrean sea" by an anonymous Greek sailor also gives some 
information about Kalinga. Ptolemy, the Greek geographer (2nd century A.D.) gives an account 
of the ports of Kalinga. His indication to a people called 'Oretes' living near the mount 'Maleus' is 
significant because the former is identified with Odras whereas the latter with the Malaya 
mountain.  
The most valuable of the foreign accounts is that of the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang 
who visited Odisha in 638-39 AD. His writings have been made available to us as 'On Yuan 
Chwang's Travels' by T. Watters, 'Life of Hiuen Tsang' by Hwuie and 'Records of the Buddhist 
World'. These are invaluable sources of authentic information. Another Chinese traveller l-
Tsing's 'Records of the Buddhistic Religions as practised in India and the Malay Archipelago' is 
also of significant help. Gerini's 'Researches on Ptolemy' and Tibetan historian Lama Taranath's 
history provide valuable information regarding ancient period of Odisha. . 
Inscriptions 
   Inscriptions play a very important part in shaping the history of Odisha. We find the 
place-names, territorial boundaries, religion, administrative units, grant of lands as well as the 
social and economic condition of the people Odisha from inscriptions which were very useful in 
reconstructing the political, social, economic and religious history of Odisha.  
Inscriptions in different forms 
We find the inscriptions in different forms and at different places of Odisha. The 
pictographs project the earliest examples of inscriptions in Odisha. Pictographs are found in 
several rock shelters in the hills of Sundargarh, Sarnbalpur and Kalahandi districts. Some classic 
examples of such writings are the Vikramkhol, Yogimath and Gudahandi rock art sites. The 
inscriptions and signs in these shelters have not been properly deciphered. In spite of that these 
Page 5


 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 Introduction 
History writing is not possible without sources because as it plays an important role. 
History without sources is not history rather it may be considered as a part of literature or 
anything else. The historical sources provide us the scientific and rational base for writing 
history.   There are many gaps between different periods of ancient Odishan history. with the 
availability of new source materials, old ideas have been changed and history has been 
reconstructed with the new facts. Similarly, many missing links have been established in 
Odishan history due to the discovery of new source materials. Therefore, sources represent the 
heart and soul of all kinds of history of any state. 
   Sources of ancient history of Odisha 
The history of Odisha is based on various available sources. There are several sources 
like Literary Sources, Foreign Accounts, Inscriptions, Coins, Material Remains, Madala Panji etc, which 
helps us in writing the history of Odisha, which can be discussed as follows: 
Literary sources 
  The literary sources provide a lot of information for the reconstruction of the history of a 
nation as literature is considered as the mirror of the society. Numerous literature speaks about 
the glory of the Odisha in different ways in different periods.  
 The epics 
The Mahabharata makes the earliest reference to Kalinga and Odra. The Mahabharata 
mentions about this land and its sacred river Vaitarani and Goddess Viraja. In this epic the sage 
Lomasa advised the Pandavas to visit to river Vaitarani to take a holy deep in the river and to 
wash away all their sins. On the other hand, the Ramayana refers to Kalinganagara situated to the 
west of river Gomati and refers to the Gandhamardana and Utkala associating it with Mekala and 
 
Dasarna countries. Further, different Puranas like Vayu Purana, Mastya Purana, Bhagavata, 
Harivamsa Purana and Vishnu Purana etc. throw light on Kalinaga and Utkala and legendary 
kings. The Kapila Samhita and Prachi Mahatmya are also considered as the sources of Odishan 
history.  
 The Jaina sources 
The Jaina literature contains descriptions of Kalinga and Utkala.  In ancient time the 
people of Odisha were largely the followers of Jainism and Buddhism. So, the Jaina and 
Buddhist literature narrates about the people of ancient Odisha and its culture.  The Avasyaka 
Niryukti reveals that Aranatha, the eighteenth Jaina Tirthankara had achieved his first goal in the 
city of Rayapura which was said to be a capital city of Kalinga. Further, it states that how 
Mahavira, while travelling in Tosali was tortured by the local people who took him to be a thief 
and he was rescued by the timely interference of the Tosali-Kshatriyas. It also refers to the city 
of Dantapura. The Jaina Harivamsa gives a genealogy of the Chedis describing Abhichandra as 
the founder of that dynasty in Kosala region.  
 The Buddhist sources 
   The Buddhist literature also contains descriptions of Kalinga and Utkala. The Buddhist 
literature also reflects the history of ancient Odisha. The Mahagovinda Suttanta of Digha Nikaya, 
mentions 'Kalinga-rattha' (Kalinga Rashtra) along with its capital Dantapura. The 'Upalisutta' of 
Majjhima Nikaya describes how king Nalikira of Kalinga breathed his last as a consequence of 
his ill treatment towards some innocent ascetics. Kalinga and Utkala find mention in 
Kurudharma Jataka, vessantara Jataka, Kumbhakara Jataka, Kalinga Bodhi Jataka etc. 
Mahaparinirvana Sutta, Dathavemsa, Dighanikaya and Mahavastu also throw light on Utkala 
and Kallhga. Jatakas like Kurudharma, Kalinga Bodhi, Sarabhanga, etc. furnish information 
about Odisha. Majjim Nikaya and Mahabhagga describe the meeting of the two merchants, 
Tapassu and Bhallika of Utkala with Lord Buddha. A Buddhist work named Gandavyuha 
describes that Tosala was a prosperous kingdom in Kalinga in 3
rd
 century A.D.  The Dipavamsa 
and Mahavamsa, the two   Buddhist works mentions about the friendly relationship between 
Kalinga and the Ceylon. The Chulavamsa also depicts about the frequent visit of the king of 
Kalinga to Ceylon. 
 
 
 
Other important ancient literature 
  The Arthasastra of Kautilya composed in 4th century B.C. is a standard treatise on polity  
and statecraft which influenced the political organisations of Kalinga. Among other such works 
mention may be made of the legal texts Iike the Smritis of Manu, Narada, Brhaspati, Katyayana, 
Yajnavalkya and Kamandaka which have moulded the political systems of Odisha. On the other 
hand, the Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira, Astadhyayi of Panini and Kamasutra of Vatsyana also 
throw welcome light on the socio-religious and economic condition of ancient Odisha. 
In the Baudhayana Dharmasastra, the kalinga has been described as an impure country. 
The Natyasastra of Bharat of depicts Kosala, Tosala and Kalinga as the southern countries. 
Kalidasa’s Raghuvmasam narrates Kalinga and Utkala. Banabhattas’s Harshacharita mentions 
about the king of Kalinga. Harshavardhan’s Ratnavali also mentions about Kalinga. Further, the 
post-Sangam literatures like Silpadikaram and Manimekalai of 2
nd
 century A.D. mentions about 
Kalinga. Among the real historical works relating ancient Odisha, mention may be made of 
Gaudavaho by Vakpatiraja (cir. 725 A.D.). This gives an account of the conquests of 
Yasovarman of Kanauj. 
Literary sources during Ganga period 
 The Ganga literature are a great source of the time for socio-religious and economic 
study of Odisha. The Ganga period also saw the development of Sanskrit literature of which 
reference can be made of Murari’s Anargharaghava Natakam which was staged at Puri during a 
Car festival of Lord Jagannath. Sri Harsha’s Naishad Charita Mahakavyam mentions about the 
cowrie cells as currency prevalent in Odisha during medieval period, chewing of betel by the 
people of Odisha and Jagannatha’s procession from the temple to platform (mancha) on the 
fullmoon day of Jeyestha. On the other hand, two treaties on astrology 'Bhasvati' and 'Satananda 
Ratnamala' and a legal text 'Satananda Samgraha' by Satananda Acharya in the latter half of 11
th
  
century A.D. throw light on socio-economic aspects.  Vidyadhara's Alankar work 'Ekavali" 
composed in 13
th
 century A.D., describes the encounters of the Ganga Emperor Narasimhadeva 
with the Sultans of Delhi and Bengal. Visvanatha Kaviraja, the author of the famous 'Sahitya 
Darpana' has written 'Chandrakala Nataka' which hints at the military victories of his patron 
Gajapati Nisanka Bhanudeva or Bhanu IV (1407-37 A.D.) against the Sultan of Bengal. The 
Chandrakala Natika is a great work during the Ganga rule. One of the masterpieces in Vaishnava 
literature during the Ganga period was the marvelous work of Jayadeva’s Gitagovindam. 
 
Thus, the ancient literature gives a wide range of knowledge regarding the social, political, 
economic, religious and cultural life of the people of ancient Odisha.  
 Foreign Accounts 
The foreign accounts also give a good account of knowledge on ancient Kalinga. The 
Greek historians like Pilny, Diodorus, Curtius, Plutarch have mentioned about the people of 
Kalinga. Megasthenes refers to Gangaridum Calingarum Regia (Gangetic Kalinga Region). Pliny 
divides Kalinga into three divisions-Gangarides (Gangetic), Maceo (Middle) and Calingae 
(Kalinga). "The Peri plus of the Erythrean sea" by an anonymous Greek sailor also gives some 
information about Kalinga. Ptolemy, the Greek geographer (2nd century A.D.) gives an account 
of the ports of Kalinga. His indication to a people called 'Oretes' living near the mount 'Maleus' is 
significant because the former is identified with Odras whereas the latter with the Malaya 
mountain.  
The most valuable of the foreign accounts is that of the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang 
who visited Odisha in 638-39 AD. His writings have been made available to us as 'On Yuan 
Chwang's Travels' by T. Watters, 'Life of Hiuen Tsang' by Hwuie and 'Records of the Buddhist 
World'. These are invaluable sources of authentic information. Another Chinese traveller l-
Tsing's 'Records of the Buddhistic Religions as practised in India and the Malay Archipelago' is 
also of significant help. Gerini's 'Researches on Ptolemy' and Tibetan historian Lama Taranath's 
history provide valuable information regarding ancient period of Odisha. . 
Inscriptions 
   Inscriptions play a very important part in shaping the history of Odisha. We find the 
place-names, territorial boundaries, religion, administrative units, grant of lands as well as the 
social and economic condition of the people Odisha from inscriptions which were very useful in 
reconstructing the political, social, economic and religious history of Odisha.  
Inscriptions in different forms 
We find the inscriptions in different forms and at different places of Odisha. The 
pictographs project the earliest examples of inscriptions in Odisha. Pictographs are found in 
several rock shelters in the hills of Sundargarh, Sarnbalpur and Kalahandi districts. Some classic 
examples of such writings are the Vikramkhol, Yogimath and Gudahandi rock art sites. The 
inscriptions and signs in these shelters have not been properly deciphered. In spite of that these 
 
earliest signs and pictographs had expressed the idea of men who were living in Odisha in pre-
historic period.  Not only on cave walls, inscriptions in Odisha are largely engraved on copper 
plates stone pieces and temple walls. Two sets of Asokan stone edicts (separate Kalinga edicts 
found at Dhauli and Jaugada are the earliest epigraphs in the pre-Christian era which throw light 
on the administrative arrangement of Asoka in Kalinga. The Hatigumpha inscription of 
Kharavela is the first of its kind in the entire country that throws light on the achievements of 
Kharavela for the long thirteen years of his rule ceaselessly. Written in Brahmi script and prakrit 
language, the inscription has allured the attention of scholars from different parts of the country 
for its uniqueness. 
Inscriptions in Sanskrit language 
  On the other hand, the Sanskrit language was used largely in other inscriptions. The 
Bhadra inscription of Maharaja Gana (3rd century A.D.), the Allahabad inscription of 
Samudragupta (4th cenury AD.), the Asanapat stone inscription of Satrubhanja (4th century 
A.D.), the Ningond grant of Mathara ruler Prabhanjanavarman (5th century A.D.), the Rithapur 
grant of Nala ruler Nandivardhana (5th century A.D.), the Narla grant of Parvatavaraka ruler 
Nandaraja and Terasingha charter of Tustikara of the same dynasty (both the inscriptions 
belonging to 5
th
 century A D.), the Jirjingi charter of the Eastern Ganga ruler Indravar the I(urud 
charter of Sarbhapuriya rulers Narendra (6th century A.D) and the Khariar charter of Sudevaraja-
l (7th century A.D.) are the inscriptions which throw good deal of early history of this land. 
Similarly, the inscriptions found from Kanasa, Sumandala, Tekhali, Ganjam etc. depict the 
achievements of Sailodbhava rulers.  
The inscriptions of the Bhaumakaras 
The inscriptions of the Bhaumakaras provides a great deal of knowledge for the 
reconstruction of the history of Odisha. It is because the rule of the Bhauma-Karas (8th-9th 
century A.D.) forms glorious epoch in the annals of  Odishan history. The Talcher copper plate 
of Sivakaradeva-I, the Hindol copper plate of Subhakaradeva-I, the Terundia copper plate of 
Subhakaradeva-l , the Dhenkanal copper plate of Tribhubana Mahadevi-I and several other 
Bhauma copper plates throw a good deal of light on the territorial expansion with Bhaumas, their 
administration, religion, grant of land to others etc.