The British Expansion in India | SSC CGL Tier 2 - Study Material, Online Tests, Previous Year PDF Download

The English East India Company's growth

• The English East India Company emerged in 1599 as a trading company established by a consortium of merchants known as the Merchant Adventurers. In 1600, Queen Elizabeth granted the company exclusive trading rights with the East.
• Under the Mughal emperor Jahangir, Captain Hawkins received a royal farman to establish factories on the western coast. Later, Sir Thomas Roe obtained permission to establish factories throughout the Mughal empire.
• The British acquired Bombay as a dowry from the Portuguese, and their conflicts with the Dutch were resolved by relinquishing claims to Indonesia.
• The English found favorable conditions in the south and established Fort St. George in Madras. However, their aggression against Hugli and the emperor resulted in failure, teaching them a valuable lesson. They adopted a strategy of flattery and humble entreaties while waiting for an opportunity. In 1698, they built Fort William and founded Calcutta. Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta quickly grew into prosperous trade centers.
• By then, the French, led by Dupleix, had also arrived in India and began interfering in the affairs of local princes using their well-equipped army. A war between France and England erupted in Europe in 1742.
• After the death of the nizam in 1748, his son Nasir Jung ascended the throne but faced a challenge from Muzaffar Jung, a grandson of the nizam. Similar conflicts arose in the Carnatic region, where Chanda Sahib conspired against Nawab Anwarudeen. The French supported both rebels and secured their claims, resulting in the deaths of Anwarudeen and Nasir Jung. The English naturally sided with the fallen party led by Muhammad Ali, Anwarudeen's son. Under the skilled leadership of Robert Clive, the English won the subsequent wars. According to the 1754 treaty, the French recalled Dupleix from India. In 1760, the British decisively defeated the French at the Battle of Wandiwash, establishing their supremacy in India.
• The farman granted by the Mughal emperor allowed the British to engage in free trade in Bengal without paying dastaks for the movement of goods. However, the company's servants abused these privileges, causing a significant loss of revenue for Bengal. When Siraj-ud-Daulah ascended the throne in 1756, he demanded equal trade terms for the English as Indian merchants. The situation deteriorated when the English refused and fortified their positions, leading to the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Through treachery and betrayal by Mir Jaffar and Rai Durlabh, the English deceitfully defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah, earning immense prestige and revenue.
• Later, when Mir Jaffar failed to fulfill the tribute promised to the British, they replaced him with Mir Qasim. Mir Qasim abolished all duties on internal trade, which angered the British. They defeated him in the Battle of Buxar in 1764.

How did British traders who arrived in India eventually become rulers of territories? 

In 1600, the East India Company obtained a charter from Queen Elizabeth I of England, granting it exclusive trading rights in the East. This gave the East India Company a monopoly, preventing other English trading groups from competing with them. However, the royal charter did not prevent other European powers from entering the Eastern markets. The Portuguese had already established their presence on India's western coast, while the Dutch and French were also exploring trade opportunities in the Indian Ocean.

Since all these trading companies were interested in buying the same goods, they had to eliminate their rivals in order to thrive. This led to intense battles between the trading companies as they sought to secure markets. They conducted trade with armed forces and fortified their trading posts.

East India Company begins to trade in Bengal

• The East India Company began its trading activities in Bengal, establishing its first English factory on the banks of the Hugli River in 1651. By 1696, the Company started constructing a fort around the settlement near the factory, where merchants and traders resided. The Company managed to convince the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb to issue a farman (official order) granting them the privilege of trading without paying duties.
• However, while the farman only exempted the East India Company from paying duties, the Company's officials engaged in private trade on the side without paying taxes, causing significant revenue losses for Bengal. This behavior prompted a protest from the Nawab of Bengal, Murshid Quli Khan.

How did trade lead to battles?

• As the Mughal rule declined, numerous successor states emerged, a phenomenon we have already witnessed. Following Aurangzeb's death, the Bengal nawabs asserted their power and autonomy, mirroring the actions of other regional powers at that time. The nawabs refused to grant the Company concessions and demanded substantial tributes in exchange for the Company's right to trade. 
• They also denied the Company the right to mint coins and prevented them from expanding their fortifications. In response, the Company declared that trade could flourish only if the duties were eliminated. Furthermore, they believed that expanding trade required enlarging their settlements, acquiring villages, and rebuilding forts. These conflicting interests eventually led to confrontations, culminating in the renowned Battle of Plassey.

The Battle of Plassey

• At the time, Sirajuddaulah, the Nawab of Bengal, captured the English factory at Kassimbazar and proceeded to Calcutta to establish control over the Company's fort. Company officials in Madras dispatched forces under the command of Robert Clive, who was reinforced by naval fleets. Prolonged negotiations with the Nawab ensued. Ultimately, in 1757, Robert Clive led the Company's army against Sirajuddaulah at Plassey. By promising to make Mir Jafar the Nawab after defeating Sirajuddaulah, Clive managed to secure the support of one of Sirajuddaulah's commanders. The Battle of Plassey gained fame as the first major victory for the English East India Company in India. However, the Company was initially unwilling to assume administrative responsibility, as its primary objective remained the expansion of trade.
• Nevertheless, Mir Jafar voiced administrative grievances with the British, leading to his replacement by Mir Mir Qasim. Similar conflicts arose between the East India Company and Mir Mir Qasim, resulting in the Company's triumph in the Battle of Buxar in 1764. Subsequently, the East India Company shifted its primary objective from trade to territorial expansion. In 1765, the Mughal emperor appointed the Company as the Diwan of the provinces of Bengal. This Diwani appointment allowed the Company to utilize Bengal's substantial revenue resources. With revenues from India, the Company could finance its expenses, purchase textiles such as cotton and silk, maintain their troops, and cover the costs of constructing the Company's fort and offices in Calcutta.

Expansion of Company Rule

Following the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the East India Company appointed Residents in various Indian states. Through these Residents, Company officials began interfering in the internal affairs of these states. In some instances, the Company coerced states into a "subsidiary alliance." Under this alliance, Indian rulers were prohibited from maintaining their independent armed forces and instead relied on the Company for protection. However, they were required to pay for the "subsidiary forces" maintained by the Company. Failure to make these payments resulted in the loss of a portion of their territory as a penalty.

Conflict with Tipu Sultan

Mysore held control over the lucrative trade of the Malabar coast, where the Company purchased valuable commodities like pepper and cardamom. In 1785, Tipu Sultan halted the export of these substances through his kingdom's ports and prohibited local merchants from trading with the Company. Furthermore, he developed a close alliance with the French in India and modernized his army with their assistance. These actions greatly angered the British. Four wars were waged against Mysore between 1767 and 1799, with the Company achieving its ultimate victory in the final conflict, known as the Battle of Seringapatam. Subsequently, Mysore was placed under the control of the former ruling dynasty, the Wodeyars, and a subsidiary alliance was imposed on the state.

Conflict with the Marathas

Following their defeat in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, the Marathas' aspirations of ruling from Delhi were shattered. The Company engaged in a series of wars that subdued the Marathas. The first war, which concluded with the Treaty of Salbai in 1782, did not yield a clear winner. The Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05) was fought on multiple fronts and resulted in the British acquiring territories such as Orissa, as well as regions north of the Yamuna River, including Agra and Delhi. The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19) crushed Maratha power entirely. As a result, the Company gained complete control over territories located south of the Vindhyas.

The Assertion of Paramountcy

During Lord Hastings' tenure as Governor-General from 1813 to 1823, a new policy of "paramountcy" was introduced. The East India Company now claimed that its authority was supreme and justified in annexing or threatening to annex any Indian kingdom. This perspective continued to shape later British policies. These periods witnessed British control shifting towards the northwest due to fears of Russian invasion. The British engaged in a protracted war with Afghanistan between 1838 and 1842, establishing indirect Company rule there. They also took over Sind and annexed Punjab in 1849.

The Doctrine of Lapse

Under Lord Dalhousie, who served as Governor-General from 1848 to 1856, the final wave of annexations took place through the application of the Doctrine of Lapse policy. According to this doctrine, if an Indian ruler died without a male heir, their kingdom would "lapse," becoming part of Company territory. Many kingdoms were annexed simply by invoking this doctrine. Examples include Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1850), Udaipur (1852), Nagpur (1853), and Jhansi (1854). Finally, in 1856, the Company also took over Awadh. The British claimed that the annexation aimed to liberate the people from the alleged misgovernment of the Nawab, which angered the deposed Nawab. The people of Awadh later joined the widespread revolt that erupted in 1857.

Establishing a New Administration

Warren Hastings, who served as Governor-General from 1773 to 1785, played a significant role in expanding Company power. By his time, the Company had gained influence not only in Bengal but also in Bombay and Madras, which were considered administrative units known as Presidencies. Each Presidency was governed by a Governor, with the Governor-General serving as the supreme head of the administration. Warren Hastings, as the first Governor-General, implemented various administrative reforms, particularly in the field of justice. The Regulating Act of 1773 established a new Supreme Court, while the Sadar Nizamat Adalat, a court of appeal, was also established in Calcutta. The key figure in an Indian district was the Collector, whose primary responsibilities included revenue collection, tax administration, and maintaining law and order in the district with the assistance of judges, police officers, and other officials.

Role of Governor Generals in the British conquests

Let's delve into the post-Plassey and Buxar period to understand the events that unfolded after these battles. While the British emerged as unquestioned champions of the land, they still faced obstacles in the form of numerous small states throughout India. The strategies employed by certain governors-general to navigate these challenges and establish British dominance in India are worth exploring.

Robert Clive

Our exploration begins with Robert Clive (1765-1772), who was given a second chance following his exceptional military leadership. He introduced a system known as "dual administration" in Bengal. As the diwan, the company already had the power to collect its own taxes. By gaining influence in the appointment of the deputy subahdar, the company effectively assumed de facto ownership of the nizamat as well. Consequently, the company wielded power without assuming responsibility.

• During Clive's time, the British tax system in Bengal became so favorable that they ceased to bring money from England to purchase Indian goods. Instead, they invested the revenue they received from Bengal directly into purchasing Indian goods, which they then sold in foreign markets. These investments became a significant aspect of the company's operations in India.

Warren Hastings

• Next, we turn to Warren Hastings (1772-1785), whose name itself bore the reference to "war." Interference in the territories of others continued under his rule. Initially, he fought against Mysore with the assistance of the Nizam, and later involved himself in the internal politics of the Marathas by siding with Raghunath Rao against the infant Peshwa Madhav Rao II, who was represented by Nana Phadnis. This extended Anglo-Maratha war lasted from 1775 to 1782. During this period, Hastings had to confront the combined forces of the Marathas, the Nizam, and Mysore. 
• However, through strategic maneuvers and pitting one ruler against another, he managed to navigate his way. In the first Anglo-Maratha war, the British were unable to make significant gains. Eventually, the Treaty of Salbai was signed, which maintained the status quo and provided the British with ample time to recover. This allowed them to wage a war against Hyder, in which they received support from the Marathas.
• The war with Haider Ali commenced in 1780. Although Haider initially emerged victorious, Hastings' cunning tactics aided the British in securing deals with the Nizam and the Marathas through territorial concessions. In 1781, Haider Ali was defeated by Eyre Coot and later passed away in 1782. His son Tipu Sultan continued the fight from 1789 but was ultimately defeated in 1792. The Treaty of Seringapatam resulted in the cession of a significant portion of Tipu's territories.

Wellesley

• Wellesley (1798-1805) was the next significant Governor-General. By 1797, both Mysore and the Marathas had significantly weakened in power. Recognizing the opportune moment for rapid expansion, Wellesley adopted a policy of "subsidiary alliances," outright wars, and the annexation of territories previously controlled by subordinate rulers. The theory of a subsidiary alliance was described as "a system of fattening allies as we fatten oxen until they were worthy of being devoured." The Nizam was the first to be brought into a subsidiary alliance in 1798 and 1800, followed by the Nawab of Awadh in 1801.
• During this period, Tipu Sultan was strengthening his position and had sought French assistance. However, in 1799, before the French support could reach him, he engaged in a fierce war and perished.
• At the time, the Marathas were a confederacy consisting of five factions: the Peshwa (Poona), Gaekwad (Baroda), Sindhia (Gwalior), Holkar (Indore), and Bhonsle (Nagpur). Although the Peshwa held a nominal leadership role, these factions were frequently engaged in warfare with each other. Even in the face of imminent danger, they failed to unite. As a result, when one faction fought against the British, the others either observed or joined forces with the British, leading to their defeat.
• Nevertheless, Wellesley's expansionist policy incurred significant costs for the British government. Consequently, he was recalled from India.

Hastings

• The subsequent Governor-General was Hastings (1813-1823). The Marathas made a final attempt to resist British domination by forming a united front, but by then, it was too late. They were easily subdued, and the Peshwa's territories were annexed to the Bombay Presidency. To appease the Marathas, a small kingdom of Satara was granted to Shivaji's descendant, who ruled under British supervision.
• By 1818, the entire subcontinent, except for Punjab and Sindh, was under British control. The process of annexation was completed by 1857. The growing Anglo-Russian rivalry in Europe and Asia fueled fears of a Russian attack from the northwest. Although Sindh was considered a friendly state by the British, it was conquered by Charles Napier in 1843. Napier later remarked, "We have no right to seize Sindh, yet we shall do so, and it will be a very advantageous, useful, humane piece of rascality."

Dalhousie

Dalhousie (1848-1856) assumed the role of Governor-General. He introduced the Doctrine of Lapse, which allowed for the annexation of numerous small states, including Satara in 1848, Nagpur and Jhansi in 1854, and others. This policy served as a significant catalyst for the Great Revolt of 1857. Dalhousie also sought to conquer Awadh, but his doctrine failed to apply there due to the presence of multiple heirs. Thus, he accused the Nawab of misgovernance and annexed Awadh under that pretext in 1856.