The Mughal Empire (1526-40) and (1555-1857) | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Introduction 

• The Mughals were descendants of two great lineages of rulers.
• Babur: the founder of the Mughal Empire in India was related to Timur from his father’s side and to Chengiz Khan through his mother. 
• Babur succeeded his father as the ruler of Farghana (Uzbekistan) but soon lost his kingdom.
• Financial difficulties, apprehension of Uzbek attack on Kabul, and invitation of Rana Sanga to invade India forced Babur to look towards India.
  
  Emperors of the Mughal Dynasty

Babur (1526 - 1530 AD)

• Defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526.
• Was a descendant of Timur on his father’s side and of Chengiz Khan on the side of his mother.
• Umar Shaikh Mirza was his father.
• After defeating Ibrahim Lodi he had won a decisive victory against the Afghans.
• Defeated the Rana of Mewar, Sangram Singh, or Rana Sanga on March 16, 1527, at Khanua.
• In 1528, he captured Chanderi from a Rajput Chief Medini Rai and a year later he defeated the Afghan chiefs under Mahmud Lodi in the battle of Ghagra in Bihar.
• A detailed record of Babur’s career is found in his autobiography—Tuzuk-i-Baburi or Baburnamah—which he wrote in his mother tongue (Turki).

Significance of Babur's Advent into India

• Babur implemented the creation of Char-Baghs and meticulously designed gardens.
• Mosques were constructed by Babur in Panipath and Sambhat in Rohilkhand.
• Notable literary contributions include the Tuzuk-I-Baburi (Babarnama) and Masnavi by Babur.
• Kabul and Gandhar were incorporated as integral parts of the expanding Mughal Empire.
• The Mughals enjoyed nearly two centuries of protection from external invasions under Babur's rule.
• Babur played a key role in popularizing gunpowder, cavalry, and artillery in India, even though gunpowder had been used earlier in the region.
• Babur contributed to the strengthening of India's foreign trade.
• Introducing a new mode of warfare, Babur significantly influenced military strategies in India.
• By defeating Sangha and Lodi, Babur disrupted the balance of power and laid the foundation for a unified empire in India.
• Babur assumed the title of Padshah during his reign.

Humayun (1530-40 & 1555-56) 

• Humayun ascended the throne at Agra, on the 29th of December, 1530 A.D.
• Humayun gave large territories of his father’s dominions to his three brothers and two cousins.
• Karan was confirmed in his possession of Kabul and Kandahar.
• Askari got Sambhal. Alwar and Mewat were allotted to Hindal.
• His first step was the seizure of Kalinjar.
• He defeated the Afghans in 1532 A.D. at the battle of Dauhria.
• Sher Shah proved to be the most formidable enemy of Humayun, and after defeating the latter at Chausa and Kanauj in 1540, completely shattered his prospects.
• After his final defeat at the hands of Sher Shah Suri the Mughal empire in India was temporarily eclipsed and Humayun had to pass nearly fifteen years (1540-55) in exile.
• But shortly after regaining the empire Humayun died in an accident.

Sher Shah Suri (1540-45)

• Founder and Duration:
  • Sher Shah established the Sur dynasty, succeeding the Lodhi dynasty, and ruled for five years.
• Administrative Achievements:
  • Notable constructions during his reign included the Purana Qila (Old Fort) and its mosque, as well as the Mausoleum at Sasaram.
  • Malik Muhammad Jayasi authored the renowned Hindi work "Padmavat" during Sher Shah's rule.
• Continuity in Central Administration:
  • Sher Shah maintained the central administration structure from the Sultanate period.
  • Key officials included the Diwan-i-Wizarat/Wazir (Revenue and Finance), Diwan-i-Ariz (Army), Diwan-i-Rasalat (Foreign Minister), Diwan-i-Insha (Communications), and Barid (Intelligence).
• Empire Division and Local Administration:
  • Sher Shah divided his empire into "sarkars."
  • Each sarkar had a Chief Shiqdar (law and order) and Chief Munsif (judge) overseeing administration.
  • Sarkars were further divided into Parganas, each administered by Shiqdar, Amin, Fotedar, and Karkuns.
  • Mauza (village) constituted the lowest level of administration.
• Administrative Units and Officers:
  • Administrative units called iqtas were also present.
  • Revenue officers, known as Amils, and Qanungo maintained revenue records.
• Land Revenue System:
  • Land survey and introduction of a schedule of crop rates (ray) were carefully implemented.
  • Improved land revenue through zabti-i-har-sal (annual land assessment).
  • Cultivable lands were categorized as good, middle, and bad. The state's share, one-third of the average produce, was paid in cash or crops.
  • Introduced Patta (peasant payment) and Qabuliyat (deed of agreement).
• Currency and Trade Routes:
  • Introduced new silver coins called "Dam," in circulation until 1835.
  • Constructed the Shahi Road, later named the Grand Trunk (GT) road, connecting Calcutta and Peshawar.
  • Built Sarais (lodging) along the road, serving as post offices and evolving into market towns.
• Military and Administrative Practices:
  • Followed by horse branding from Alauddin Khalji.
  • Maintained a personal royal force called Khasa Kail.

Akbar(1556-1605)

Main Events during the Reign of Akbar

Conquests

• Malwa was conquered in 1561 by Baz Bahadur.
• The fortress of Ain Marwar was captured after a brief siege in 1562.
• Chandrasen, the ruler of Marwar, submitted to Akbar in 1563.
• In 1567 Akbar himself conducted the siege of the fort of Chittor, which fell the next year (1568) after a desperate resistance.
• Ranthambhor submitted in 1569 and Marwar and Bikaner in 1570.
• Battle of Haldighati between Rana Pratap Singh and Akbar in 1576.
• Akbar himself led an expedition to Gujarat in 1572 and completed it by the siege of Surat in 1573.
• In 1574-75 Bihar and Bengal were conquered by the Afghan chief Daud.
• After the death of Muhammad Hakim in 1586, Kabul was annexed to the Mughal Empire.
• In 1586, Kashmir was annexed to the empire, and in 1593, as a prelude to the conquest of Kandahar, the whole of Sindh was annexed.
• In 1594, Kandahar was conquered from Persia.
• In 1601, the fort of Asirgarh was captured and Khandesh was annexed to the Mughal Empire.

His liberal measures

• In 1562 he passed a decree that in the course of war, the Hindu non-combatants and the families of Combatants were not to be made prisoners, reduced to slavery, or converted to Islam.
• In 1563 he abolished the pilgrim tax.
• In 1564 he abolished Jeziyah.
• He opened a translation department for translation of Sanskrit and other works into Persian.
• The use of beef was forbidden and later, in 1583, killing of certain animals on particular days was forbidden.

Religious Movements

• The movement of the non-sectarian path: preached by Dadu in Gujarat; his refusal to identify himself either with Hindus or Muslims; his assertion of indivisibility of the Supreme Reality.
• Satnami Movement: Foundation of a new sect, called Satnamis (their god being Satnam) by Birbhan. Their rejection of the caste system, idol-worship, and their maintenance of high standards of morals.
• Narayanian Movement: Founder-Haridas;  their belief in one God, Narayan, or the supreme being.
• Dharma Movement: In Maharashtra several saints worshipped Vithoba; their rejection of the caste system.
• Sufi Movement: Belief in Tauhid or the unity of Godhead; the role of Dara Shikoh in spreading the idea of Tauhid.
• Reactionary Movements: Among the orthodox Hindus spearheaded by Raghunandan of Navadwipa in Bengal; among the orthodox Muslims-spearheaded by Shaikh Ahmad Sarhindi. for the general welfare and better government of the country.
• Rebellion of Jahangir’s son Khusran at Lahore (1606).
• The rebellious prince was captured, blinded, confined, and subsequently killed by Khurram in 1622.
• The fifth Sikh Guru Arjan with whom the rebel prince had stayed at Tarn Taran and also received his blessings, was first fined by the government, but as he refused to pay the fine he was sentenced to death.
• The first military expedition undertaken by Jahangir was against Rana Amar Singh, son of Rana Pratap of Mewar.
• Rana Amar Singh came to terms with the Mughals in 1615.
• The greatest failure of Jahangir’s reign was the loss of Kandahar to Persia.
• In 1613, Nur Jahan was promoted to the status of Padshah Begum, coins were struck in her name, and on all farmans her name was attached to the imperial signature.
• Nur Jahan's influence secured high positions for her father who got the title of Itimaduddaulah. 
• Jahangir’s reign has been vividly portrayed by two representatives of King James I of England, namely, Captain Hawkins (1608-11) and Sir Thomas Roe (1615-19).
• They visited his court to gain favorable concessions for English trade with India.
• As a result of the efforts of Thomas Roe English factories were established at Surat, Agra, Ahmedabad and Broach.

Jahangir (1605-1627)

• Art and Architecture:
  • Initiated the embellishment of walls with floral designs using semi-precious stones, known as Pietra Dura.
  • Constructed the Moti Masjid in Lahore and established the Shalimar and Nishant gardens in Kashmir.
  • Pioneered the use of Halo or Divine lights positioned behind the king's head.
• Succession and Early Reign:
  • After Akbar's death, Prince Salim ascended to the throne with the title Jahangir (Conqueror of World) in 1605.
• Revolts and Political Influences:
  • Faced a revolt led by his son Khusrau, resulting in defeat and imprisonment for Khusrau.
  • Guru Arjun, the fifth Sikh Guru and a supporter of Khusrau was beheaded.
• European Interactions:
  • British visits to Machilipatnam occurred during his reign.
  • Captain Hawkins and Thomas Roe visited Jahangir's court, with Thomas Roe obtaining a Farman for establishing an English factory at Surat, sealed by Shah Jahan.
• Nurjahan's Influence:
  • Jahangir's wife, Nurjahan, wielded significant influence over state affairs.
• Justice and Military Affairs:
  • Erected Zanjr-i-adal at Agra fort for seekers of royal justice.
  • Mahtab Khan, a military general, revolted against Jahangir.
• Literary Contribution:
  • Jahangir authored his autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, written in Persian.
• Military Expeditions:
  • Faced a formidable challenge from Malik Amber during expeditions to Ahmednagar.
• Administrative Modification:
  • Introduced the "du-aspah-sih-aspah" system, a modification to the Mansabdari system, allowing nobles to maintain a large number of troops without raising their zat ranks.

Shah Jahan (1628-1658)

• At the time of Jahangir’s death in October 1627, Shah Jahan was in the Deccan.
• The first three years of Shah Jahan’s reign were disturbed by the rebellions of the Bundela Chief Juhar Singh and of Khan Jahan Lodi.
• He ousted the Portuguese from Hugli and occupied it in 1632.
• During his period the Nizam Shahi Kingdom of Ahmadnagar was finally annexed to the Mughal Empire.
• In 1636 Aurangzeb, son of Shah Jahan, was appointed the Mughal viceroy in the Deccan.
• The territories in his charge were divided into four subahs. 
  (a) Khandesh (b) Berar (c) Telengana (d) Ahmadnagar.
• In 1639, Ali Mardan Khan the disgruntled Persian Governor of Kandahar, delivered the fort to the Mughals without fighting.
• In 1649 Shah Abbas II of Persia wrested Kandahar from the Mughals.
• Seige of Golconda and Bijapur in 1656 and 1657.
• At the time of Shah Jahan’s sickness in September 1657, his eldest son Dara was at his bedside in Agra, Shuja was governor in Bengal, Aurangzeb was viceroy in the Deccan and the youngest Murad was governor in Gujarat.
• Many foreign travelers who visited India during the reign of Shah Jahan, have left a vivid account of his reign.
• Of these two Frenchmen Bernier and Travenier and an Italian adventurer Manucci, the author of the Storio Dor Mogor, are especially noteworthy.

Aurangzeb (1658-1707)

• Aurangzeb had claimed the throne as the champion of Sunni orthodoxy.
• In 1659 he issued several ordinances to restore the Muslim law of conduct according to the teachings of the Quran.
• He discontinued the practice of inscribing the Kalima on the coins and abolished the celebration of New Year’s Day (nauroz).
• Muhtasibs were appointed in all big cities to enforce the Quranic law and put down the practices forbidden by it.
• The ceremony of weighing the emperor on his birthdays and the practice of Jharokadarshan were also discontinued.
• In 1668 the observance of Hindu festivals was prohibited.
• In 1679-70 the Jat peasantry of the region of Mathura rose under the leadership of Gokala.
• In 1672, the Satanami peasants in the Punjab, and the Bundelas under the leadership of Champat

Facts To Be Remembered

• Maham Anaga was Akbar’s foster-mother.
• Akbar was successful in crushing a rebellion led by Uzbek nobles.
• Abdul Nabi was the corrupt chief qazi of Akbar.
• Chavand was the new capital of Rana Pratap.
• Chandrasen, the ruler of Marwar, waged a guerilla warfare against Akbar.
• Singhasan Battisi, the Atharva Veda and the Bible were translated into Persian during the reign of Akbar.
• The Kabul-Ghazni-Qandhar line was established by Akbar.
• The peasants who owned the land they tilled were called Khudkasht.
• Population in India at the beginning of Seventeenth century was about 125 million.
• During Akbar’s reign, Rajputs formed the largest section of the Hindu nobility, and among Rajputs, the Kachhwahas predominated.
• Hindus formed 33% of Aurangzeb’s nobility. Of the Hindu nobles, the Marathas formed more than half.
• Jahangir introduced the fashion of wearing costly jewels in their ears after piercing them.
• During Mughal India, the Chettis formed the trading community of South India.
• The fifth Guru Arjun Das started a system of collecting offerings from the Sikh at the rate of one-tenth of their income.
• Forbidden cesses were called abwabs under the Mughals.
• Jagannath and Janardan Bhatta were famous musicians who belonged to Shah Jahan’s court.
• Akbar gave Raja Birbal the title of Kavi-priya.
• Bihari Lal was the poet of Shah Jahan’s reign. He wrote Satsai  which is a collection of 700 dohas and sortas.
• An important historical work of Shahjahan’s reign is the Amal-i-Salih of Muhammad Salih.
• Mirza Hossain Ali composed songs in Bengali in honour of Goddess Kali.
• If on earth be an Eden of Bliss
• It is this, it is this, none but this” — Amir Khusrau

Women of the Mughal Family

• Gulbadan Begum: the sister of Humayun.
• Noor Jahan (Meherunnisa): Wife of Jahangir,    daughter of Ghiyas Beg (Idmatuddaula).
• Mumtaz Mahal (Anjumand Banu Begum): Wife of Shah Jahan, mother of 14 children.
• Jahan Ara: Daughter of Shah Jahan.
• Rabiaul-Daurani    (Dilras    Banu Begum): The first wife of Aurangzeb.

 Mughal Buildings & Builder

• Humayun's Tomb (Delhi) : Bega Begum
• Buland Darwaza (Fatehpur Sikri) : Akbar
• Shalimar Bagh (Srinagar) : Jahangir
• Akbar's Tomb (Sikandara, Agra) :

Began by Akbar and finished by Jahangir.

• Tomb of ltmaduddaula (Agra): NurJahan
• Tomb of Jahangir (Shahdara Bagh,
• Lahore ):Shah Jahan
• Taj Mahal (Agra) : Shah Jahan
• Red Fort (Delhi) : Shah Jahan
• Shalimar Gardens (Lahore): Shah Jahan
• Bibi Ka Maqbara (Aurangabad) :Azam Shah
• Salim Chisti's Tomb (Fatehpur Sikri): Akbar

 Name of the Book Author

• Tuzk-i-Babari: Babar
• Humayun Namah : Gulbadan Begum
• Akbarnama, Aini Akbari: Abul Fazi
• TuzkiJahangiri: Jahangir
• Shah Jahan Namah : Inayat Khan
• Padshah Namah (about Shah Jahan): Abdul Hamid Lahori
• Alamgirnama (about Aurangzeb): Mirza Muhammad Kazim

 Battles Fought Between

• 1st Battle of Panipat (1526) : Babur and Ibrahim Lodhi
• Battle ofKhanwa (1527) : Babur and Rana Sunga.
• Battle of Chausa (1539) : Sher Shah Suri and Humayun
• 2nd Battle of Panipat (1556) : Akbar and Hemu
• Battle of Haldighati (1576) : Raja Maan Singh [Mughal army] and Rana Pratap
• Battle of Samugarh (1658) : Aurangzeb and Dara Shikoh
• Battle of Khanwa (1659) : Aurangzeb and brother Shah Shuja
• Battle of Karnal (1739) : Nadir Shah and Muhammad Shah[Mughal)