Why was there stalemate on the Western Front? | History for GCSE/IGCSE - Year 11 PDF Download

Why did the war become bogged down to the trenches?

• The war of movement transformed into a war of attrition.
• Trench warfare emerged as both factions excavated trenches for shielding against enemy assaults.
• German trenches surpassed allied ones in depth and fortification due to their territorial gains. Conversely, the Allies constructed shallower trenches to repel the Germans.
• Both sides grappled with the complexities of trench warfare.
• The British banked on cavalry charges to secure victories, but such tactics proved disastrous as soldiers were exposed to lethal enemy fire upon leaving the trenches.
• Technological advancements were marred by defects and misuse.

What was living and fighting in the trenches like?

• Soldiers were not constantly engaged in combat in the trenches.
• They were structured in platoons consisting of 60 men. Ideally, each platoon was scheduled to spend 4 days on the front line, followed by 4 days in the reserve trench line, and then 4 days of rest. However, the reality was harsher, with soldiers enduring over 2 weeks on the front line. Platoon rotations occurred in a cyclical manner.

Fighting in the Trenches

• Rats: Rats thrived in discarded food and waste, spreading diseases among soldiers. For example, they carried fleas that transmitted deadly illnesses like typhus.
• Lice: These tiny insects infested soldiers' clothing, feeding on their blood and causing discomfort and itching. This made the soldiers' lives even more unbearable in the already harsh conditions of the trenches.
• Disease: Due to poor hygiene, limited sanitation facilities, and a scarcity of clean water, diseases ran rampant in the trenches. Soldiers often suffered from illnesses like dysentery and trench foot, leading to high casualty rates.
• The Weather: The weather conditions in the trenches were extreme and unforgiving. Wet conditions caused trench foot and gangrene, while frostbite was a common affliction during winter. Additionally, the stench of decaying bodies and overflowing latrines in the summer made the environment unbearable for soldiers.
• Shell Shock: Shell shock, now known as PTSD, was a term used to describe the mental trauma suffered by soldiers exposed to the horrors of war. It manifested as anxiety, nightmares, and other psychological symptoms.
• Boredom: Soldiers often faced long periods of inactivity and monotony during the stalemates in the trenches. With little to do besides waiting for battles, boredom became a significant challenge, affecting their mental well-being.

How important were new developments such as tanks, machine guns, aircraft, and gas?

Tanks

• Tanks were a secretive development by the British.
• They were first utilized in the battle of Flers in September 1916.
• Advantages included inducing panic among German forces, breaking through barbed wires, and clearing paths for infantry, ultimately proving crucial in Allied victories in 1918.
• Tanks caused fear among German troops, breached obstacles like barbed wire, and paved the way for foot soldiers.
• Their significance lay in their role in pivotal Allied successes in 1918.
• However, drawbacks surfaced: out of 59 tanks deployed in France, only 49 were functional, with 17 breaking down before combat. They were unreliable, sluggish, easy targets for German machine gunners, prone to getting stuck, and lacked bulletproofing.
• Of the 59 tanks in France, only 49 were operational.
• 17 of these tanks broke down before even reaching the battlefield.
• The tanks were characterized as unreliable and slow, making them vulnerable targets for German machine gunners.
• They frequently encountered issues such as getting stuck and lacked bulletproof protection.
• Later tank models saw improvements in reliability and speed.

Machine Guns

• Machine guns emerged as the most crucial defensive weapon during the war.
• Each gun had the capacity to unleash 400-600 rounds per minute, proving lethal at distances exceeding a kilometer.
• Machine guns accounted for approximately one-third of battlefield casualties.
• Early versions of machine guns were bulky and required 3-6 personnel to operate, primarily serving defensive purposes.
• Over time, advancements led to more mobile machine guns that transitioned into offensive roles.

Aircrafts

• Primarily utilized for reconnaissance and surveillance of enemy trench lines and reinforcements.
• For instance, during the Battle of the Somme, German aircraft closely monitored Allied front line activities.
• In 1915, machine guns were initially affixed to the wings of aircraft.
• Subsequently, Germans innovated by installing machine guns at the propeller of biplanes, enhancing accuracy.
• However, due to their small size and limited armament, aircraft were ineffective against significant targets.
• Larger planes lacked the capacity to carry sufficient bomb loads.
• They were also employed in air raids and played a crucial role in selecting and coordinating artillery targets.
• Despite these efforts, aerial combat had minimal impact on the overall outcome of the war.

Gas

• Gas was first utilized as a weapon in Ypres in April 1915, demonstrating its lethality.
• Although responsible for only 4% of total deaths, it was a potent and fatal weapon throughout the conflict.
• Gas was dispersed from canisters, drifting towards enemy positions if the wind favored the attacking side.
• Gas shells broke upon impact with the ground, releasing the toxic substances.
• Over time, improvements in gas masks enhanced soldier protection.
• Three primary types of poison gas were employed:
  • Chlorine gas, which destroyed respiratory organs through inhalation of its vapors.
  • Phosgene gas, causing minimal coughing, leading to increased inhalation and damage.
  • Mustard gas, the most lethal variant, which inflicted internal and external burning and blistering without an apparent odor.
• Disadvantages:
  • Wind direction might not be favorable.
  • Gas masks hindered visibility and mobility.

What was the Significance of the Battles of Somme and Verdun?

• Both Allied offensives were disastrous failures, resulting in the deaths of more than one million soldiers.
• Offensive strategies were initiated to break the deadlock on the Western Front.

Battle of Verdun — February-December 1916

• General Falkenhayn's Strategic Decision: General Falkenhayn launched an attack on Verdun in early 1916, believing the French were on the brink of collapse. Verdun held great symbolic importance as a fortress city representing French nationalism.
• French Defenses at Verdun: Despite being a stronghold of French defenses before the war, all artillery was stripped from the fort to reinforce the front lines, leaving it vulnerable to German advances.
• German Strategy and Intentions: The Germans aimed to inflict maximum casualties on French troops, adopting a strategy to 'bleed France white'. Victory at Verdun could break French morale, potentially leading to their surrender and even Britain's withdrawal from the war.
• Course of the Battle: Initially successful, German forces swiftly captured key French forts. However, their advance was halted in mid-July when they redirected their focus to the Battle of the Somme. Subsequently, French forces reclaimed lost territory.
• Human Cost and Public Pressure: Both sides suffered over 600,000 casualties, prompting intense public pressure to secure Verdun despite its limited strategic value. The British intervened with the Battle of the Somme to relieve French forces at Verdun.

The Battle of the Somme - July to November 1916

• On July 1st, British commander Sir Douglas Haig initiated a large-scale assault on German trenches along the River Somme.
• His strategy aimed to create a breach in German defenses through intense artillery bombardment, followed by a cavalry charge to rout the Germans.
• The objective was to isolate the Germans from their supply lines, forcing them to surrender.
• However, the offensive ended in catastrophic failure.
• On the first day alone, the British army suffered a staggering 57,410 casualties.
• The British public gained unprecedented insight into the horrors of the battlefield through the film "The Somme."
• The plan involved seven days of heavy shelling to obliterate German trenches and clear barbed wire, along with the deployment of five large mines beneath German positions.
• On July 1, 1916, Allied troops advanced slowly across no man's land to clear out any remaining German forces from the trenches, with cavalry intended as a secondary wave of attack.
• Reasons why Battle of Somme was a failure for the British:
  • The initial bombardment failed to obliterate the German barbed wire defenses.
  • The German trenches, being well-supplied and reinforced, were not significantly impacted by the artillery barrage.
  • After the shelling ceased, the Germans were alerted to the imminent British assault.
  • The British forces advanced slowly, becoming easy targets for the defending Germans.
  • When General Haig called off the attack, the British had only managed to advance seven miles.
  • The Battle of the Somme resulted in over 1 million casualties in total.
  • Haig's Mistakes:
    • Haig's ineffective planning and costly tactics prolonged battles, leading to unnecessary casualties.
    • Despite clear signs of defeat, Haig persisted in battles, escalating the loss of lives.
    • In 1917, Haig repeated his errors during the Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele), indicating a lack of adaptability.
    • Haig's reluctance to embrace modern military strategies, like a unified army, hindered his success.
    • He underestimated the importance of new technologies, believing cavalry would secure victory.
    • The victory on the Western Front was not due to Haig's tactics but to innovative strategies borrowed from the Germans.
    • Controversially labeled the 'Butcher of the Somme,' Haig operated with half the forces he deemed necessary.
    • Haig's tactics at the Battle of Vimy Ridge in 1917 showcased adaptability with the use of tunnels and detailed planning.
    • Private papers reveal Haig's remorse for his soldiers' losses, portraying a compassionate side to his leadership.
    • Haig's concern for his soldiers' safety, such as instructing them to walk slowly to avoid mines, humanizes his image.