Contemporary South Asia Class 12 Political Science

Introduction

South-Aisa has been a focus of a global attention in the contemporary world, especially since India and Pakistan became nuclear powers. It is known for a variety of ongoing conflicts, such as border, water disputes, insurgency, ethnic strife, and resource sharing issues. Despite the turbulence, many believe that cooperation among the countries could lead to development and prosperity in the region. 

What is South-Asia?

• South Asia, a vibrant and diverse region, comprises eight distinct countries: India, Nepal, Pakistan, Maldives, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh.
• Bound by formidable natural barriers like the Himalayas and surrounded by the Indian Ocean, this region presents a unique blend of cultures, politics, and history.
• Despite its challenges, South Asia has made significant strides towards cooperation and regional integration.
• This reflects its complex interplay of conflict and collaboration.

Features of South Asia

• Defined by natural barriers: the Himalayas, Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, and Bay of Bengal.
• Boundaries are less clear in the east and west; Afghanistan and Myanmar are sometimes included, but China is not.
• The region experiences various problems like border disputes, river water disputes, rebellion, ethnic conflicts and poor economic conditions

Political Journey of South-Asian Countries

• India and Sri Lanka have sustained democratic systems since independence.
• Pakistan and Bangladesh have experienced both civilian and military rule but are currently democratic.
• Nepal shifted from a monarchy to a democratic republic in 2008.
• Bhutan became a constitutional monarchy and multi-party democracy in 2008.
• The Maldives transitioned from a Sultanate to a republic with a presidential form of government in 1968 and introduced multi-party politics in 2005.

Democracy in South Aisa

• Despite a mixed record of democratic experiences, people in South-Asian countries share a strong aspiration for democracy.
• A recent survey of attitudes in the five major countries of the region shows widespread support for democracy.
• Ordinary citizens, regardless of wealth or religion, view democracy positively and support representative democratic institutions.
• People prefer democracy over other forms of government and believe it is suitable for their country.
• These findings are significant because it was previously thought that democracy could only thrive in prosperous countries.
• The South Asian experience with democracy has broadened the global understanding of democracy.

The Military and Democracy in Pakistan

• After Pakistan's first constitution, General Ayub Khan took over, was elected, and then faced popular dissatisfaction, leading to his resignation.
• General Yahya Khan then led a military takeover, during which Pakistan faced the Bangladesh crisis and lost East Pakistan, which became Bangladesh in 1971.
• Zulfikar Ali Bhutto led an elected government from 1971 to 1977 before being removed by General Ziaul-Haq.
• General Zia faced a pro-democracy movement starting in 1982, leading to another elected government under Benazir Bhutto in 1988.
• Pakistani politics then centered around competition between Bhutto’s party and the Muslim League until 1999 when General Pervez Musharraf removed Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif.
• General Musharraf was elected President in 2001, and the military continued to rule, though elections were held to maintain a democratic image.
• Since 2008, democratically elected leaders have governed Pakistan.
• Factors contributing to Pakistan's unstable democracy include the military's social dominance, the influence of the clergy and landowning aristocracy, and conflicts with India.
• Pro-military groups argue that political parties and democracy are flawed, claiming that the army's rule is necessary for national security.
• Despite democratic challenges, there is a strong pro-democracy sentiment in Pakistan, supported by a courageous press and a strong human rights movement.
• Lack of genuine international support for democracy, with Western countries previously favoring the military's rule due to concerns over global Islamic terrorism and Pakistan’s nuclear arsenal, has encouraged continued military dominance.

Democracy in Bangladesh

Monarchy and Democracy in Nepal

• Nepal was a Hindu kingdom and later a constitutional monarchy for many years.
• Political parties and the people sought a more open and responsive government, but the king retained control with military support, limiting democratic expansion.
• In 1990, the king conceded to a new democratic constitution due to strong pro-democracy movements, but democratic governments faced issues.
• During the 1990s, Maoists gained influence, advocating armed insurrection against the monarchy and ruling elite, leading to a violent conflict.
• In 2002, the king abolished parliament and dismissed the government, ending even the limited democracy in Nepal.
• In April 2006, massive pro-democracy protests led by the Seven Party Alliance (SPA), Maoists, and social activists forced the king to restore the dissolved House of Representatives.
• Nepal transitioned to democracy by forming a constituent assembly to draft a new constitution, reflecting a unique historical moment.
• Some believed a nominal monarchy was necessary for historical continuity, while Maoists pushed for radical social and economic reforms.
• Maoists and some groups were cautious of India's role in Nepal's future.
• In 2008, Nepal abolished the monarchy and became a democratic republic.
• Nepal adopted a new constitution in 2015.

Ethnic Conflict and Democracy in Sri Lanka

• Sri Lanka has retained democracy since its independence in 1948.
• Post-independence politics, dominated by the Sinhala majority, marginalized the Tamil minority.
• The Sinhala nationalists opposed concessions to Tamils, leading to militant Tamil nationalism.
• From 1983, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) fought for a separate Tamil state, Tamil Eelam, and controlled parts of northeastern Sri Lanka.
• India faced pressure from Tamil people in India to protect Sri Lankan Tamils’ interests and initially tried to mediate.
• In 1987, India signed an accord with Sri Lanka and sent troops as part of the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) to stabilize relations.
• The IPKF’s presence led to conflict with the LTTE and resentment from Sri Lankans, leading to the IPKF’s withdrawal in 1989.
• The conflict continued until the LTTE was defeated in 2009, with significant international mediation, particularly by Scandinavian countries like Norway and Iceland.
• Despite the conflict, Sri Lanka achieved substantial economic growth, high human development, and maintained a democratic system.

India-Pakistan Conflicts

• Post-Cold War conflicts in the region continue, with significant international tensions involving India.
• The most prominent conflict is between India and Pakistan, centered on the disputed region of Kashmir.
• Conflicts over Kashmir began after partition, with wars in 1947-48 and 1965 failing to resolve the issue.
• The 1947-48 war led to the division of Kashmir into Pakistan-occupied Kashmir and Indian Jammu and Kashmir, separated by the Line of Control.
• The 1971 war between India and Pakistan did not settle the Kashmir issue but resulted in India's decisive victory.
• Other strategic issues include control of the Siachen Glacier and an ongoing arms race.
• Both countries entered the nuclear era in the 1990s, with India conducting a nuclear test in Pokhran in 1998 and Pakistan responding with tests in the Chagai Hills.
• Despite decreased likelihood of full-scale war, mutual suspicion remains high.
• India accuses Pakistan of supporting Kashmiri militants and pro-Khalistani groups, and of using its Inter Services Intelligence (ISI) in anti-India activities.
• Pakistan accuses India of inciting trouble in Sindh and Balochistan and interfering in its internal affairs.
• Water sharing has been a longstanding issue, with both countries historically disputing the use of Indus basin rivers.
• The Indus Waters Treaty of 1960, facilitated by the World Bank, continues to govern water distribution, though minor disagreements persist.
• There are ongoing disputes over the demarcation line in Sir Creek in the Rann of Kutch, which could impact control over sea resources.
• Both nations are in negotiations to address these issues.

India and its Other Neighbours

• Neighbouring South-Asian countries of India are Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Maldives and Pakistan.

India-Bangladesh Relations:

• Disputes over river water sharing and issues related to illegal immigration and support for anti-Indian groups.
• Tensions regarding Indian troop movements and natural gas exports.
• Bangladesh views India as a regional bully and there are ongoing boundary disputes.
• Despite differences, cooperation has improved, including economic relations and disaster management.

India-Nepal Relations:

• Special relationship with open travel and work arrangements.
• Trade-related disputes and concerns over Nepal’s relationship with China and its handling of anti-Indian elements.
• India sees the Maoist movement as a threat and Nepal has concerns about Indian interference and control over resources.
• Relations remain stable with cooperation in trade, scientific research, and shared resources.

India-Sri Lanka Relations:

• Strained by ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka, particularly regarding Tamils.
• Indian military intervention in 1987 led to disengagement from Sri Lanka’s internal issues.
• Improved relations through economic agreements and post-tsunami reconstruction assistance.

India-Bhutan Relations:

• Strong, conflict-free relationship with India aiding Bhutan’s hydroelectric projects and providing development assistance.
• Bhutan’s actions against guerrillas from northeastern India benefit India.

India-Maldives Relations:

• Warm relations with Indian military intervention during a Tamil mercenary attack in 1988.
• Cooperation in economic development, tourism, and fisheries.

Peace and Cooperation

Despite conflicts, South Asian states recognize the need for cooperation and friendly relations.

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation

• SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) was established in 1985 to foster regional cooperation.
• SAARC members signed the South Asian Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) in 2004, which started on 1 January 2006 to create a free trade zone.
• SAFTA aims to lower trade tariffs, but some neighbors fear economic invasion and political influence from India.
• India sees economic benefits and believes that increased trade can lead to better political cooperation.

Efforts and Challenges in India-Pakistan Relations

• Despite the ongoing conflict and violence between India and Pakistan, there have been multiple efforts to manage tensions and promote peace.
• Both countries have agreed on confidence-building measures to minimize the risk of war.
• Social activists and prominent individuals have worked together to foster friendship between the two nations' citizens.
• Leaders have held summits to improve understanding and seek solutions to major issues.
• Several bus routes have been established between the countries, and trade has increased with more easily granted visas.
• Recently, however, the situation has changed.

Influence of External Powers

• China and the United States play significant roles in South Asian politics.
• Sino-Indian relations have improved, but China's strategic partnership with Pakistan remains a concern.
• Economic ties between China and India have grown rapidly since 1991.
• US involvement increased after the Cold War, with the US acting as a moderator in India-Pakistan relations.
• Economic reforms in South Asia have deepened American participation.
• The South Asian diaspora in the US and the region's population and market size give the US a vested interest in regional security and peace.

Timeline of South Asia Since 1947

1947: India and Pakistan emerge as independent nations after the end of British rule
1948: Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) gains independence; Indo-Pak conflict over Kashmir
1954-55: Pakistan joins the Cold War military blocs, SEATO and CENTO
1960: India and Pakistan sign the Indus Waters Treaty
1962: Border conflict between India and China
1965: Indo-Pak War: UN India-Pakistan Observation Mission
1966: India and Pakistan sign the Tashkent Agreement: Six-point proposal of Sheikh Mujib-ur Rehman for greater autonomy to East Pakistan
1971 March: Proclamation of Independence by leaders of Bangladesh
August: Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship signed for 20 years
December: Indo-Pak War, Liberation of Bangladesh
1972 July: India and Pakistan sign the Simla Agreement
1974 May: India conducts nuclear tests
1976: Pakistan and Bangladesh establish diplomatic ties
1985 December: South Asian leaders sign the SAARC Charter of the first summit in Dhaka
1987: Indo-Sri Lanka Accord; Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) operation in Sri Lanka (1987-90)
1988: India sends troops to the Maldives to foil a coup attempt by mercenaries
1991: India and Pakistan sign the agreement not to attack nuclear installations and facilities of each other
1998-98: Democracy restoration in Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal
1996 December: India and Bangladesh sign the Farakka Treaty for sharing of the Ganges Waters
1998 May: India and Pakistan conduct nuclear tests
1999 March: India and Sri Lanka sign the Free Trade Agreement (FTA)
1999 February: Indian PM Vajpayee undertakes bus journey to Lahore to sign a Peace Declaration
June-July: Kargil conflict between India and Pakistan
2001 July: Vajpayee - Musharraf Agra Summit unsuccessful
2004 January: SAFTA signed at the 12th SAARC Summit in Islamabad
2007: Afghanistan joins SAARC
2014 November: The 18th SAARC Summit in Kathmandu, Nepal

Conclusion

While South Asia grapples with numerous internal and external challenges, including political instability, border disputes, and economic disparities, the pursuit of regional cooperation continues to be a key objective. The establishment of SAARC and initiatives like SAFTA represent efforts to foster economic integration and peace. As South Asian nations navigate their shared history and diverse interests, their ability to build on these cooperative foundations will determine whether the region evolves into a more unified and prosperous bloc or remains defined by its conflicts.