India's External Relations Class 12 Political Science

Introduction

• After gaining independence, India's leaders responded to the challenges of external affairs with a creative approach through the policy of non-alignment. 
• However, they also encountered conflicts with neighboring countries, resulting in three wars in 1962, 1965, and 1971. 
• These wars, along with broader external relations, were shaped by and had their impact on the internal politics of the country.

International Context or Relations

1. Challenges faced by India as an independent nation-state in a complex international setting:

• Post-War Reconstruction: The world was dealing with the aftermath of a devastating World War and efforts to rebuild.
• Formation of International Bodies: There was an ongoing attempt to establish a new international organization.
• Emergence of New Nations: Many new countries were forming due to the collapse of colonialism.
• Welfare and Democracy: Most newly independent nations were grappling with the dual challenges of welfare and democracy.

2. India’s own challenges as an independent nation-state:

• International Disputes: The British government left behind a legacy of numerous international disputes.
• Partition Pressures: The partition of India introduced its own set of pressures and challenges.
• Poverty Alleviation: The urgent task of poverty alleviation was a significant concern.

Similar to how both internal and external factors shape the behavior of an individual or a family, a nation's foreign policy is influenced by its domestic environment and international context. 

Indian Constitution on Promotion of International Peace and Security

The Policy of Non-Alignment

• The Indian national movement was part of a global struggle against colonialism and imperialism, influencing liberation movements in Asia and Africa.

• Prior to India’s independence, there were contacts between Indian nationalist leaders and those of other colonies, united in their fight against colonial rule.

• The Indian National Army (INA), created by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose during World War II, exemplified the connection between India and overseas Indians in the freedom struggle.

• India’s foreign policy was shaped by the ideals of its struggle for freedom and had to navigate the complexities of the Cold War, including confrontations between the US and USSR.

• The era also saw significant global developments, such as the establishment of the UN, the creation of nuclear weapons, the rise of Communist China, and the onset of decolonization, influencing India’s approach to its national interests.

Fathers of non-alignment

Nehru’s Role

• From 1946 through 1964, Nehru was in charge of foreign policy. Nehru's foreign policy focused on preserving the hard-won sovereignty, protecting territorial integrity, and fostering rapid economic development.
• Despite the fact that many leaders from India wanted India to follow a pro-US foreign policy; Nehru wished to achieve his objectives of foreign policy through the strategy of non-alignment.

Distance From Two Camps

• India wished to stay out of the military alliances that the US and Soviet Union were leading against one another. India's independence ambitions and non-alignment strategy did not go down well with the US.
• During 1950s India took an independent stand on various international issues and could get aid and assistance from members of both power blocs.
• The USA's sentiments were hurt by India's independent stance and her expanding relations with the USSR. Consequently, there was a great deal of tension in Indo-US relations in the 1950s.

Afro-Asian Unity

• Contacts between India and other recently independent governments in Asia and Africa were first established during the Nehru era.
• In March 1947, India organised the Asian Relations Conference under Nehru's direction.
• India supported the process of decolonisation and opposed racism, especially apartheid in South Africa.
• The NAM was founded at the Afro-Asian Conference, also known as the Bandung Conference, which took place in the Indonesian city of Bandung in 1955.
• The first summit of the NAM was held in Belgrade in September 1961.

Peace and Conflict with China

• India, one of the first nations to recognise the communist government, had cordial relations with China from the start of its independence.
• Some of Nehru’s colleagues like Vallabhbhai Patel, were worried about possible Chinese aggression in future but Nehru thought it was exceedingly unlikely that India will face an attack from China.
• The Paonchsheel Agreement, which was signed by Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai and Indian Prime Minister Nehru on April 29, 1954, outlined the "five principles of peaceful coexistence" and was a step toward strengthening relations between the two.

Tibet

• One of the main concerns that has historically led to hostility between India and China is Tibet, a plateau in the Central Asian region.
• After the Panchsheel Agreement of 1954 India conceded China’s claim over Tibet.
• In 1959, the Tibetan spiritual leader Dalai Lama was given asylum (refuge) by India which worsened the relations between both countries.

The Chinese Invasion, 1962

• In 1950, China annexed Tibet, eliminating the long-standing barrier between the two nations. The Dalai Lama controversy fueled the fire.
• China has territorial claims over two territories in India: the Askai-Chin area in Jammu & Kashmir's Ladakh region and the state of Arunachal Pradesh in the North Eastern Frontier Agency (NEFA).
• China launched a swift and massive invasion in October 1962 on both the disputed areas.
• The China war dented India’s image at home and abroad.
• India had to seek military assistance from the Americans and the British to overcome the crisis. The Soviet Union stayed neutral throughout the conflict. This situation led to a feeling of national humiliation but also bolstered a sense of nationalism.

Aftermath of the war:

1. Effect on the government in power: For the first time, a no-confidence motion was introduced and debated in the Lok Sabha against his government. Shortly after, the Congress lost several important by-elections to the Lok Sabha.  
2. Effect on the opposition party: There were irreconcilable divides within the Communist Party of India due to the Sino-Indian conflict and the growing gap between China and the Soviet Union. The party split in 1964, resulting in the formation of a new party called the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI-M) who was pro-China and against the Congress.
3. Reorganisation of northeastern states: Nagaland was granted statehood, while Manipur and Tripura, although still Union Territories, were given the authority to elect their own legislative assemblies. 

Wars and Peace with Pakistan

• The Kashmir dispute is what sparked the conflicts with Pakistan shortly after independence.
• Nehru and General Ayub Khan signed the India-Pakistan Indus Waters Treaty in 1960, and it has proved successful despite all the ups and downs in Indo-Pak relations. Another example of peaceful collaboration between the governments include restoration of the women who were separated from their families during the Partition.
• In April 1965, Pakistan launched armed attacks in the Rann of Kutch area of Gujarat which was followed by a bigger offensive in Jammu and Kashmir in August-September.
• The UN's intervention put an end to the conflict. The Tashkent Agreement was signed in January 1966 by General Ayub Khan of Pakistan and Indian Prime Minister Lai Bahadur Shastri.

Bangladesh War, 1971

India’s Nuclear Policy

• The first nuclear explosion was undertaken by India in May 1974.
• In India nuclear programme was initiated in the late 1940s under the guidance of Homi J. Bhabha.
• Nehru was against nuclear weapons and India wanted to generate atomic energy for peaceful purposes.
• The five permanent members of the UN security council-tried to impose the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968 on the rest of the world.
• India always considered the NPT as discriminatory and had refused to sign it.
• India conducted a series of nuclear tests in May 1998, demonstrating its capacity to use nuclear energy for military purposes.

Conclusion

India’s journey in international relations reflects its broader quest for stability and influence on the world stage. From pioneering the Policy of Non-Alignment to managing conflicts with neighboring countries and advancing its nuclear agenda, India's foreign policy has been a strategic dance between maintaining independence and engaging with global powers. As the global landscape continues to shift, India’s historical experiences provide a foundation for understanding its current and future diplomatic endeavors.