Class 6 History Chapter 8 Notes - Villages, Towns and Trade

Welcome to the fascinating world of village towns and trade! In this chapter notes, we will explore how villages became busy centers of commerce in ancient times. Discover the bustling marketplaces, skilled artisans, and the important role of merchants in connecting communities.

Iron Tools and Agriculture

Approximately 2500 years ago, there was a noticeable increase in the use of iron tools. These tools included axes, which were helpful in clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we learned in Chapter 5, the ploughshare played a crucial role in enhancing agricultural output.

Iron Tools

Other Steps to Increase Production: Irrigation

• Kings and kingdoms needed the support of flourishing villages to exist. 
• The new tools and the system of transplantation increased production. 
• Irrigation was also used. 
• Irrigation works built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.

Irrigation of Land

Who Lived in the Villages? 

At least three different kinds of people lived in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. 

Types of People in Villages

1. Vellalar - large landowners in the Tamil region
2. Uzhavar - ordinary ploughmen in the Tamil region
3. Kadaisiyar and Adimai - landless labourers and slaves in the Tamil region
4. Grama Bhojaka - village headman in the northern part of the subcontinent

Roles and Responsibilities of Grama Bhojaka

• The largest landowner in the village
• Had slaves and hired workers for cultivation
• Collected taxes for the king
• Functioned as a judge and sometimes as a policeman

Other Village Residents

1. Grihapatis - independent farmers and smaller landowners
2. Dasa Karmakara - landless workers, earning a living by working on others' fields
3. Craftspersons - blacksmith, potter, carpenter, and weaver

The Earliest Tamil Compositions

Around 2300 years ago, the Tamil language witnessed the creation of some of its earliest works known as Sangam literature. These texts were given the name Sangam because they were believed to have been composed and compiled during gatherings (sangams) of poets held in the city of Madurai. The mentioned Tamil terms can be found within the Sangam literature.

Coins

• Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. 
• The earliest coins used for about 500 years were punch-marked coins.
• These are cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body) and not inscribed but stamped with symbols using dies or punches. 

Punch Marked Coins

Punch-marked Coins

Punch-marked coins were commonly rectangular, square, or round in shape. They were made by cutting metal sheets or shaping flattened metal globules. Instead of inscriptions, these coins were stamped with symbols using special tools called dies or punches. That's why they are called punch-marked coins. These coins were widely used across various regions of the subcontinent and remained in circulation until the early centuries CE.

Cities With Many Functions

A single town was important for a variety of reasons.  

Example:

Importance of Mathura

• An important settlement for over 2500 years because it was located at the crossroads of two major travel and trade routes— from the northwest to the east and from north to south. 
• The city is fortified with several shrines.
• It was supplied with food by farmers and herders from nearby areas.
• It was a center for producing fine sculptures.

Mathura as a Capital and Religious Centre

• It became the second capital of the Kushanas around 2000 years ago.
• It was home to Buddhist monasteries and Jaina shrines.
• Also an important center for the worship of Krishna.

Inscriptions Found in Mathura

• Short inscriptions on stone slabs and statues were found.
• Recorded gifts made to monasteries and shrines.
• Donors included kings, queens, officers, merchants, and craftspersons.
• Inscriptions mention various professions, such as goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, and perfumers.

Inscriptions found in Mathura

Crafts and Craftspersons

• Archaeological evidence for crafts includes fine pottery like Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).
• Found mostly in the northern part of the subcontinent.
• Texts indicate that cloth manufacturing was important, with famous centers like Varanasi and Madurai.
• Both men and women worked in these centers.

Shrenis: Associations of Craftspersons and Merchants

• Shrenis provided training, procured raw materials, and distributed finished products.
• Merchants' shrenis organized the trade.
• Shrenis also functioned as banks, where wealthy individuals deposited money.
• Investments and interests were used to support religious institutions like monasteries.

Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)

Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) is a type of pottery that is hard, made using a wheel, and has a distinct metallic appearance. It features a shiny black surface that is achieved by exposing the earthenware to extremely high temperatures in a kiln. Additionally, a smooth black slip is applied, giving the pottery a mirror-like shine.

A Closer Look- Arikamedu

Arikamedu is located in Puducherry. It was a Coastal settlement between 2200 and 1900 years ago.

Location of Arikamedu

Discoveries at Arikamedu

1. The massive brick structure, possibly a warehouse
2. Mediterranean pottery: amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and Arretine Ware (stamped red-glazed pottery)
3. Roman-inspired local pottery
4. Roman artifacts: lamps, glassware, and gems

Industry at Arikamedu

• Small tanks possibly used as dyeing vats for cloth
• Evidence of bead-making from semi-precious stones and glass

Trade and Traders

• Northern Black Polished Ware, a fine pottery, was found in various archaeological sites across the subcontinent and likely transported by traders.
• South India was known for gold, spices such as pepper, and precious stones, with pepper being referred to as black gold in the Roman Empire.
• Traders carried goods to Rome via ships and land caravans, with many Roman gold coins found in south India as evidence of trade

Sea Routes and Ship Building

• Traders explored various sea routes, some along the coast and others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, using monsoon winds to speed up their journeys.
• Sailors traveled with the southwest monsoon to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia.
• Sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys across the sea.

New Kingdoms along the Coasts

• The southern half of the subcontinent has long coastline, hills, plateaus, and river valleys.
• Kaveri is the most fertile river valley.
• Chiefs and kings controlling river valleys and coasts became rich and powerful.
• Sangam poems mention muvendar (meaning three chiefs) - Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas, who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago.

River Kaveri

Centers of Power and Important Cities

• Each of the three chiefs had two centers of power: one inland and one on the coast.
• Two important cities: Puhar (Kaveripattinam), the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas.

Chiefs' Sources of Wealth

• Chiefs did not collect regular taxes but demanded and received gifts from people.
• Went on military expeditions and collected tribute from neighboring areas.
• They kept some wealth and distributed the rest among supporters, family, soldiers, and poets.

Poets and their Rewards

• Many poets composed poems praising chiefs and were rewarded with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth.

The Satavahanas Dynasty

• Became powerful in western India around 200 years later.
• Most important ruler: Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni, known from an inscription by his mother, Gautami Balashri.
• Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha (route leading to the south) and controlled the entire southern region.
• Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni sent his army to eastern, western, and southern coasts.

Silk Route and the Kushanas

The Silk Route, a famous trade route, attracted the attention of several kings who sought to control significant sections of it. Their motivation stemmed from the benefits they could gain, such as taxes, tributes, and valuable gifts brought by traders traveling along the route. In return, these rulers often provided protection to the traders against robber attacks as they passed through their kingdoms.

One prominent ruling dynasty that held control over the Silk Route around 2000 years ago was the Kushanas. They governed regions in central Asia and north-west India, with their main centers of power located in Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also part of their kingdom. During their reign, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia to the seaports at the mouth of the Indus River. From there, silk was transported westwards to the Roman Empire.