Important Questions & Answers: Cultural Change - 2 | Sociology Class 12 - Humanities/Arts PDF Download

Long Answer Type Question

Q.72. What changes came in Indian society due to social movements? Explain them.

• End of Sati Pratha: Sati Pratha (system) prevailed in Indian society from the very beginning. Widows had to die with the death of her husband. She had to sit alive on the funeral pyre of her husband. This inhuman custom was started by higher castes. Due to social movements, the British government started to oppose this system and it passed a law called ‘Sati Prohibition Act’ in 1829. This law declared Sati Pratha as illegal. In this way, the custom of ancient times came to an end. All this happened due to social movements.
• End of Child Marriage: Child marriages were taking place in Indian society. Due to child marriage, parents used to marry off their children at the age of 4-5 years. The parents gave no consideration if their child even knew the meaning of marriage. The British government fixed a minimum age of child marriage due to social movements. The British Government made a law in 1860 and fixed a minimum age of 10 years for marriage.
• Widow Remarriage: Widows in our society were not allowed to remarry and this custom was going on from the very beginning. They were not allowed to take part in family functions. They had no right to live a happy life. Due to the efforts of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, the British Government passed an act in 1856 called “Widow Remarriage Act, 1856’ with which widows got permission to remarry. In this way, they got the legal right to remarry and to live a happy life.
• End of Purdah System: Purdah system prevailed among the Muslims. Females always had to live behind purdahs. They were not allowed to move anywhere without a Purdah. Gradually, this system spread all over the country. Social reformers raised their voice against the purdah system. Even Sir Syed Ahmed Khan raised his voice against this system. In this way, this system started to decrease and with the passage of time, it came to an end.
• Change in Custom of Dowry System: Dowry is the gift that the father of the bride gives the groom at the time of her marriage. But many problems also came along with it. Parents of bridegrooms started to demand dowry because of which parents of the girls had to face a number of problems. Many movements were started against this. That’s why the British government and later on in 1961, the Indian Government declared it illegal.
• End of Untouchability: The custom of untouchability was prevalent in Indian society from the very beginning. In this, lower castes were not allowed to touch the people of higher castes. So voices were raised in social movements against untouchability. That’s why an atmosphere was created for declaring it illegal. After independence, the Indian government passed an act with which it was declared illegal.

Q.73. What was the impact of westernization on Indian Society? Explain them.
Or
What changes took place in Indian Society due to Westernisation? Explain them in detail.

• Impact on Family: Traditionally, joint families exist in our country in which three to four generations were living with each other. But westernization has encouraged individualism and materialism in our country. It has reduced the community feeling and the sense of sacrifice among the members of the family. Educated youth became conscious about their rights. They started to disobey their elders. Females became conscious to maintain their identity. Joint families started to disintegrate very quickly due to this consciousness among females and young people. Nuclear families started to replace joint families.
• Impact on Marriage: The Indian marriage system also came under the influence of westernization. Before the British, many traditional customs prevailed in the Indian society like marriage within the caste, restriction on widow remarriage, child marriage, hypergamy, etc. Marriage was considered a religious sacrament. Rules of Spinda, Gotra, and Sparvara were obeyed by the people in marriage and there was no concept of divorce. But many changes came in the institution of marriage due to western culture, ideas, views, etc. Child marriages were legally stopped, late marriages started, widow remarriages started, love marriages and court marriages started divorces increased and polygamy was stopped.
• Impact on Caste System: The caste system is one of the important bases of Indian society but it has also changed due to westernization. The British established large scale industries in India and developed means of transport and communication. With this, they made the Indians familiar with facilities like a post, telegraph, television, newspapers, press, roads, planes, railways, etc. Large scale industries were established and people of different castes started to work with each other in these industries. They started to use means of transport to move from one place to another. This development reduced the sense of superiority and inferiority. People of one caste started to adopt occupations of other castes as well.
• Impact on untouchability: Untouchability was an indispensable part of the Indian, caste system. But caste discriminations were reduced due to the spread of western values of equality, liberty, and fraternity. Untouchability declined due to a number of reasons like permission to take admission in educational institutions, same educational system for everyone, same job for similar capable persons, etc. Britishers encouraged industrialization and urbanization. People of different castes started to use all the public places. So untouchability was reduced due to westernization.
• Impact on religious life: Many religious beliefs, superstitions prevailed in Indian society before the advent of the British. But many religious and reformist movements were started in India due to the impact of western education and Christian missionaries. That’s why many religious evils and superstitions came to an end. Many people changed their religion and became Christians. Elements of equalitarianism and humanism were encouraged in the Hindu religion. Many evils came to an end due to this western impact. With this, religious beliefs and their impact were also decreased. Fundamentalism of the Hindu religion declined and the Indianisation of Christianity took place.
• Change in status of women: The status of women was very low when the Britishers came to India. Their status was very pitiable due to the Sati System, Purdah System, Child Marriage, restriction on widow remarriage, etc. The British declared Sati System illegal and gave permission for widow remarriage. The Purdah system also declined due to the spread of western education. Westernized women started to wear formed attain like shirts and trousers. Lakhs of women became conscious about their rights and they started to work in offices by leaving their traditional work of taking care of the house.

Q.74. What changes came in the Indian society due to secularisation?

• Change in the concept of purity and impurity: In ancient Hindu society, different castes were given respect according to their high or low position in the society. There were no social relations among the people of higher and lower castes. People of lower castes were considered as impure and the occupation of the Shudras was to serve the people of the higher three castes. A person had to live in that caste in which he was born. They had to adopt the occupation of their own caste, even against their wish. But the process of Secularisation has tried to remove the concept of pure and impure. Now people are taking the concept of pure and impure by cleanliness and non-cleanliness. If the house of people of higher caste is not clean then he is known as impure. Every type of utensil is considered pure. Brahmins have also changed themselves according to western culture. Restrictions of occupation no more remain in the society. Today, brahmins have adopted other occupations under the effect of secularisation. It means that today no occupation is considered as low or high. They are adopting that occupation in which they see more profit. The widow is no more considered as impure. Even widow remarriage is completely approved by society and is legally sanctioned.
• Change in the Status of Women: The status of women has been changed completely. Nowadays, the impure word is not used for a literate woman. This type of view has been changed completely. Now everyone can go to the kitchen with shoes on and they take their meals while sitting at the dining table. In this way, we can see that the concept of purity and impurity has been completely changed with the process of secularisation.
• Changes in life cycles and rituals: With the process of secularisation, the rituals of the Hindu Society have completely changed. Many rituals like upanayana, Namkarna, challah, etc. were popular in Indian society. Some of these rituals were completely wiped out. Some rituals like Sharadha, Namkarna, etc. still exist in our society. In earlier times, marriage was a religious sacrament. Although the people have become modem in their outlook, they are still traditional in their thoughts. Marriage is still considered as sacred. With the development in the field of education, the outlook of people towards marriage has changed completely. Now they want to get married according to their own wish and are opposing the dowry system. Now educated woman considers herself as a dowry. Literate and employed females even think of not getting married for the sake of their poor parents. Sometimes after the death of her father, a literate female takes the responsibility of her family members.
• Effect on Dowry System: Under the effect of secularisation, the importance of the dowry system has decreased. Now all sections of society are working against this. Even many institutions have been made against the caste system. Now marriage is a social and religious sacrament. Intercaste marriages are now common. The government has made laws against the Dowry System to eradicate this social evil from society.

Q.75. What was the impact of Sanskritisation on lower castes?

The process of Sanskritisation has greatly affected the caste system of Indian society. This process has reduced the impact of the caste system and lower castes tried to uplift their social status with this process. Sanskritisation has greatly affected lower castes because of which many changes took place in their status and this is given below:

• The process of Sanskritisation has increased mobility among lower castes. Census report of 1921 says that Ahirs of North India put sacred thread (Upnayaha) and started to call themselves Kshatriyas.
• This process has improved the status of lower castes. People of lower castes adopt the traditions, rituals, ideals, and lifestyle of higher castes and start to call themselves members of higher castes. When they are able to achieve the desired place in the local caste hierarchy then their position changes automatically.
• This process has brought about many changes in the occupational status of lower castes. They started to leave those occupations which were considered impure and started to adopt pure occupations. Yet they were not allowed to adopt pure occupations but due to increasing consciousness towards purity, they started to adopt occupations of higher castes.
• The process of Sanskritisation also brought about many changes in their culture – folkways, traditions, customs, beliefs, values, behavior, and mannerism. They started to imitate the lifestyle of upper castes due to which their lifestyle also changed.
• Sanskritisation has also affected the religious life of the lower caste. They started to adopt religious rituals of higher castes. They started to do Yagyas, puja, etc. They left the impure occupations and adopted pure occupations. They started to celebrate Hindu festivals as well.
• Their economic status was also affected by this. They entered the industrial sector and government jobs with which their income improved. They started to receive technical and occupational education and achieved higher posts. Their incomes increased due to modem occupations with which their economic status improved.
• Social life of lower castes also changed with this. Members of lower castes started to receive education to improve their status. They got jobs in industries, offices, administration, etc. They started to interact with people of higher castes which resulted in the reduction of caste differences.
• Their ways of living also changed with the improvement of economic status, education, use of means of transport, jobs, etc. They started to make concrete houses. They started to use means of leisure like furniture, chairs, table, TV, Fridge, Fans, Kitchen Gas, A.C., etc.

Q.76. What were the conditions required in India to start a social reform movement?

• Western Education: When the British started to rule over India, then they started to spread western education here. When Indians came in contact with western education, they came to know about science and reasoning. They came to know that the prevailing customs of Indian society are useless and baseless. That’s why enlightened Indians started social movements here.
• Development of means of transport: The British developed means of transport for their own convenience, but Indians took the maximum advantage of these means. With the advent of means of transport, Indians came in contact with each other. Enlightened and educated Indians reached different parts of the country and explained to the people that the prevailing customs are useless. People were already fed up with these customs. They responded well to these calls and conditions became conducive with the development of means of transport.
• Advent of Indian Press: Press started in India after the advent of the British. Organizers of movements started to publish small newspapers and magazines so that Indians could read them and should understand that these evils are very harmful to society. It was necessary for them to throw these evils out of society. In this way, Indians came to know that it was necessary for them to remove these social evils.
• Increasing impact of Missionaries: When the British came to India, Christian Missionaries also came with them. They were given help by the British. The main function of these missionaries was to propagate Christianity, but their way of propagating was somewhat different. First, they used to work for social welfare. They solved the problems of the people and then they propagated their religion. Gradually people started to adopt Christianity. When Indian social reformers came to know about this, then they also started reform movements in India. In this way, these movements were started due to the impact of Christian missionaries.
• Evils of Indian Society: Most of the social reform movements were started to remove the social evils of the society. Sati Pratha, child marriage, restriction on widow remarriage, dowry system, untouchability, etc. are examples of some of the social evils of Indian society. People were fed up with the prevailing social evils. When these movements started to take place they were welcomed with both hands by the people. That’s why these movements got a conducive environment and social reform movements became successful.

Q.77. Describe the women’s movements that were started in India.

• Many movements, in the Indian Society, were initiated with the objective to improve the status of women. Indian Society is basically a male-dominated society and that’s why Indian women raised their voices against their exploitation. Women, from ancient times, were the victims of many social evils like Child marriage, Sati system, Purdah system, restrictions on widow remarriage, etc. To remove all these social evils, many social reformers initiated movements from time to time. Social reformers of these movements have done a commendable job.
• These were started in the early 19th century. Raja Ram Mohun Roy, Dayanand Saraswati, Kashavehandra Sen, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Annie Besant, etc. have done a remarkable job. Raja Ram Mohun Roy founded the Brahmo Samaj in 1828 and ‘the Sati Prohibition Act, 1829 was made just because of his efforts. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar helped the British to pass the Widow Remarriage Act, 1856. In the same way, reformers also convinced the British to pass a ‘Child Marriage Restraint Act’. Similarly, many efforts were made by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Mahatma Gandhi, etc. which positively affected the lives of the Indian women.
• Maharishi Karve was in favor of women’s education and widow remarriage. In the same way ‘The special Marriage Act 1872, was passed because of the efforts of Keshav Chandra Sen, and intercaste marriages were sanctioned by this law. With this, many women organizations also started many movements for the security of women. Annie Besant, Madam Kama, Ramabai Ranade, Margret Nobel, etc. played a great role in it. Ahilyabai and Laxmibai started a movement to organize the women of their respective areas. Pandita Ramabai started a movement in 1878 in Karnataka and Saroj Nalini also played a great role in it.
• Just because of the efforts of all these movements, the Indian government passed certain laws to improve the status of women. Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, Dowry Prohibition
• Act, 1961 and others are prominent laws that were made to achieve this objective. Under these Acts, women are given equal rights with males, the right of separation and divorce, right of inheritance, etc. By this, many social movements were started from time to time, which aimed at the security of women from this exploitation.

Q.78. What is the meaning of Secularisation? Explain its different elements.

• Srinivas has defined the term Secularisation in this way, “The term secularisation implies that what was previously regarded as religious is now ceasing to be such, and it also implies as a process of differentiation which results in the various aspects of society, economic, political, legal and moral becoming increasingly discrete in relation to each other.”
• In this way, on the basis of the given definition, we can say that secularisation is that process in which the explanation of human behavior is not done on the basis of religion but is based upon rationalism. Phenomena are understood on the basis of their reason with function. The effect of religion is decreasing in our daily life. Now the impact of science and objectivity has increased.

Essential elements of secularisation
M.N. Srinivas gave three essential elements of secularisation which are given below:

• Lack of religiousness: First and the important element of secularisation is the decline in the importance of religion. An increase in secularisation will automatically bring change in religious beliefs. A person starts to feel that those religious beliefs or traditions in which he believes, are unable to fulfill any one of his needs. People start to create an atmosphere of pomp and show while performing religious activities. Now humans don’t have any internal religious feelings. In this way, religious views start to decline. Now every person wants to take advantage of even religious activities.
• Rationality: Through rationality, humans start to examine every type of superstitions, beliefs, etc. on the basis of rationality. According to Srinivas, “In rationality, with other things traditional beliefs and views were changed into modern knowledge.” In this way, rationality increased in humans with the development of modern ideas and values.
• Process of differentiation: The process of differentiation is also related to the process of secularisation. Every sector of society i.e. social, moral, political, etc. is different from each other. Occupation of the person, in modern society, is not decided on the basis of religion but is determined on the basis of his/her ability. Now everyone is equal before the law. The impact of religion has decreased in every sector of society. A person started to get everything on the basis of his ability, not on the basis of religion.

Q.79. Which factors affected the process of Secularisation? ,

• Modern Education: With modern education, traditional ideas started to decline. That’s why people started to accept new values of society. Rationalism started to develop in society. Modern education started to be given to both boys and girls. Earlier females were confined to the four walls of the house and they had to spend their whole life in the house. But with modem education, females started to get education and jobs in every sphere. In this way, the discrimination of untouchability came to an end because everyone started to get an education.
• Development in the means of transportation and communication: British government started to develop means of transport and communication to develop mutual contacts in the Indian states. With this development, people started to come in contact with each other. People of higher and lower castes started to travel with each other in buses and rails. With this, the feeling of sacredness and non-sacredness, and untouchability started to decline.
• Westernization: With the advent of the Britishers in India, Indian people started to come in contact with the western culture and it has encouraged values like materialism and individualism. Restrictions of the caste system started to decline. The supremacy of Brahmins declined because the British started to treat everyone on equal terms. Western culture has developed the process of secularisation. In this way, the process of secularism was greatly affected by the factors of westernization.
• Urbanisation and Industrialisation: The process of secularisation has also been greatly affected by the process of urbanization and industrialization. People had to emerge out of their houses in search of work. Domestic production came to an end. The population of cities started to increase. People of every caste started to five in cities and started to work together in factories. In this way, at this type of place, it was very difficult to work according to the rules of the caste system. Occupation in cities is given not on the basis of caste but on the basis of ability.
• Governmental Efforts: The Indian Constitution was implemented in the Indian society after Independence. The Indian government made a new legal system. The Constitution tried to remove the discriminations on the basis of religion, color, caste, creed, etc. New laws were implemented, some of which are given below:
  • Special Marriage Act:-1954
  • Hindu Marriage and Divorce Act:-1955
  • Hindu Succession Act:-1956
  • Dowry Prohibition Act:-1961
  • Widow Remarriage Act:-1856.

In this way, many laws have been passed to remove the social problems of society. Inter caste marriages have been accepted. Now everyone is being treated equally before the law. In this way, the process of secularisation was encouraged by the policies of secularism.

Q.80. What is Sanskritisation? Give some of its main features.

• Prof. Srinivas gave the name of Sanskritisation to the process of changes that comes with indefinite aspects of human life in Indian Society. He wrote a book named ‘Social Change in Modern India’ and in this book he wrote that the process of Sanskritisation in the Indian Society is going on from the very beginning and is still going on. In his book, he wrote about this process and explained, “Sanskritisation means not only the adoption of new customs and habits but also the exposure to new ideas and values which have been frequently expressed in the vast body of Sanskrit literature, sacred as well as secular. Karma, Dharma, Paap, Maya, Sansar, and Moksha are examples of some of the most common Sanskrit theological ideas, and when people become Sanskritised these words are used frequently.”
• In another context, M.N. Srinivas wrote, “Sanskritisation is the process by which a low Hindu caste or group changes its customs, rituals, ideology, and ways of life in the direction of a higher and frequently twice-born caste.”
• In this way, the process of Sanskritisation remained in the caste system and through this process, people of lower castes try to adopt and imitate the lifestyle, habits, ways of living, etc. of higher castes and were able to do so. After one or two generations they mixed among the people of higher castes. In this way, people of lower castes try to uplift their social status through this process.

Features of Sanskritisation

• Sanskritisation is a universal process: This process has influenced the whole Indian Society. This process was not only related to the caste system but this process has exerted its impact even on Muslims and Jains. Even tribal society is very influenced by this. Generally, tribal people and Shudras are given the lowest place in the hierarchy of Indian society. That’s why many tribal groups have adopted the lifestyles of different Hindu castes.
• Sanskritisation is not merely Brahmanisation: Srinivas and Yogendra Singh both have accepted that Sanskritisation is not merely Brahmanisation. People of lower castes not only adopt the living styles of Brahmins, but they adopt the living styles of Kshatriya and Vaishyas as well. Actually, they adopt living styles and habits of that caste which has more influence in that particular society.
• Sanskritisation has many models: Varna is not the only model of Sanskritisation but it has many models. Milton Singer says that Sanskritisation does not have one or two models but has three or four models.
• Imitation of High Castes: People of lower castes, tribes, and other groups adopt the traditions, folkways, ideology, and ways of behavior of Hindu castes. They also perform the rituals done by ‘DWIJAS’, yet this thing is restricted for lower castes. Sanskritisation is a process of imitation of the lifestyle of higher castes by the lower castes.
• Sanskritisation is related to the group: The status of the group changes through Sanskritisation. It is not related only to a person or family because if any person or family of the lower family tries to say that he belongs to a higher caste then it is quite possible that he might be opposed by that particular caste.

Q.81. What is westernization? State some of its features.
Or
What is meant by westernization? Describe its different aspects.

• Generally, the meaning of westernization is taken by the impact of western countries on India. England, France, Germany, and U.S.A. are those western countries that greatly influenced our Indian Society. The educated class of India tried to imitate the lifestyle of the people of these countries. Prof. M.N. Srinivas gave a detailed description of westernization.
• Other sociologists also tried to explain westernization but they mainly concentrated on giving an explanation of the impacts of westernization on Indian Society. Srinivas wrote a book called ‘Social Change in Modern India’ and in this book he wrote, ‘1 have used the term westernization to characterize the changes brought about in the Indian Society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule and the term subsume changes occurring at different levels, technology, institutions, ideology, and values.”
• So from this definition, it is clear that the concept of westernization includes the changes which came in institutions and ideology of our Indian Society and which took place due to political and cultural contacts with the western countries. Westernization can have many ideals like England, U.S.A., or another European country.

Characteristics of westernization

• Continue after Independence: The process of westernization hardly came to an end even when the British left our country. This process is continuously evolving even after independence. From modern Indian Culture, ways of living, eating habits, new ways of mannerism, the spread of western education, etc. We can tell that India is westernizing even in today’s age.
• Westernisation is different from modernization: Yet the process of modernization is encouraged by westernization but both concepts are different from each other. Westernization is related to all good or bad effects over the Indian society which were exerted due to the British contacts but the process of Modernisation includes positive impacts of western and other countries like England, Germany, France, Russia, U.S.A., Japan, China, etc. over the Indian Society. Except this, the impact of modern science and technology, information, and science on Indian Society is also known as modernization.
• Impact of the British culture on Indian Society: Westernisation is the impact of the British culture over Indian Society. India is also influenced by other western countries but the process of westernization does not include the impact of other western countries. To clarify this statement Srinivas wrote that, “I have used the term westernization to characterize the changes brought about in our Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule.”
• Westernisation is not confined to urbanites: The impact of westernization was not confined only to urban areas during the British empire. Whoever came in their contact like rural farmers, smaller officials, military men, etc. became westernized. It was spread even in rural areas as well.
• Conscious and Unconscious process: The process of westernization is a conscious as well as an unconscious process. Some of the aspects of culture, like language, technology, etc. were consciously adopted by the Indians. But many westernized ideas, values, eating habits, and living habits were unconsciously adopted by the Indians. Eating on a dining table, saying good morning or good night, etc. are some of its examples.
• Ethically Neutral: Many good, bad, positive, negative, organizational, and disorganization changes came in our Indian Society through westernization. Westernization is not related to positive and negative aspects of change. All the changes taking place under this concept means ethically westernization is a neutral concept.