Power Resources | Geography for UPSC CSE PDF Download

The subject Power appears in the concurrent list of the Constitution and, as such, responsibility for its development lies with both Central and State governments.

• The construction and operation of generation and transmission projects in the Central sector are entrusted to Central sector power corporations.
• National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) - central public sector undertaking responsible for thermal power generation and large-scale generation projects.
• National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC) - central corporation responsible for developing hydroelectric projects.
• North Eastern Electric Power Corporation (NEEPCO) - central corporation focusing on power development in the north-eastern region.
• Power Grid Corporation of India Limited (PGCIL) - responsible for transmission networks in the Central sector and for formation and operation of the National Power Grid.
• Two joint-venture power corporations - Nathpa Jhakri Power Corporation (NJPC) and Tehri Hydro Development Corporation (THDC) - are responsible for execution of the Nathpa Jhakri Power Project in Himachal Pradesh and projects of the Tehri hydro power complex in Uttar Pradesh respectively.
• Two statutory bodies - Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC) and Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB) - operate under the administrative control of the Ministry of Power.
• Programmes of rural electrification receive financial assistance from the Rural Electrification Corporation (REC), operating under the Ministry of Power.
• Power Finance Corporation (PFC) provides term finance to projects in the power sector.
• Autonomous technical and research organisations under the administrative control of the Ministry of Power include the Central Power Research Institute (CPRI), the National Power Training Institute (NPTI) and the Energy Management Centre (EMC).

Rural Electrification

Rural electrification refers to planned extension of electrical service to rural areas to improve agricultural productivity, rural industries and quality of life. It typically covers two broad types of supply:

• Production-oriented electrification for activities such as minor irrigation, rural industries, agro-processing and other income-generating activities.
• Household and village electrification - providing lighting, water-pumping, health and education related electrical services to villages and rural homes.

Rural electrification programmes are formulated and executed primarily by State Electricity Boards (SEBs) or State government departments in collaboration with Central agencies. Financial and technical assistance is provided by Central agencies such as REC and other specialised bodies.

Historically, hydroelectricity was adopted where flowing water and appropriate technology were available. After the Second World War, nuclear energy emerged as an additional source that required sophisticated technology. These and other long-established sources are called conventional sources of energy; among them, coal continues to occupy a prominent position in India's energy mix.

Rural Electrification

Conventional Energy Resources

Coal

Coal is both a primary industrial energy source and an important raw material for steel and several chemical industries. Including lignite, coal still accounts for about 60 per cent of India's commercial power requirements.

• Most Indian coal deposits (about 98 per cent) belong to the Gondwana geological age; these are generally deeper and more extensive coal seams formed in the Permian-Carboniferous periods.
• Nearly three-quarters of the coal deposits are located in the Damodar River valley.
• As on 1 January 1996, the Geological Survey of India estimated India's coal resources (to a depth of 1,200 metre) at 208,751.89 million tonnes. As on 1 January 2006 the estimate was 253,300 million tonnes.
• Coal mining in India started at Raniganj in West Bengal in 1774.
• After independence the coal industry was nationalised and brought under state control to regulate operations and protect labour interests.
• Major coal fields (after regrouping) include: Raniganj, Jharia, East Bokaro and West Bokaro, Panch-Kanhan, Tawa Valley, Singrauli, Talcher, Chandwa/Chandawardha and the Godavari valley.
• Coal production in 1951 was only about 35 million tonnes. Per capita consumption of coal has increased historically from about 135 kg to nearly 225 kg (period not specified in source).

Lignite

• Lignite, commonly called brown coal, is a lower grade coal with higher moisture content and lower calorific value compared with higher-rank coals.
• Indian lignite is relatively consistent in quality and often contains less ash than some coals.
• Lignite reserves in India were estimated at around 36,009 million tonnes as on 1 January 2004.
• The Neyveli area in Tamil Nadu contains about 4,150 million tonnes of lignite reserves, of which 2,360 million tonnes fall in the proven category.

Oil and Natural Gas

Petroleum and natural gas are normally found in sedimentary basins where tertiary rocks and alluvial deposits were once under shallow seas. Such basins are the most prospective regions for hydrocarbon accumulation.

• Potential hydrocarbon-bearing area in India is estimated to exceed 1 million square kilometres (about one third of the country), including parts of the northern plains, coastal strips with continental shelves, Gujarat plains, the Thar Desert and adjoining offshore, and areas around the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Before independence Assam was the only region with commercial oil production; the refinery at Digboi is one of the earliest in the country.
• After independence, hydrocarbon prospects expanded to include the Cambay area of Gujarat and several offshore basins.
• The largest and richest oil field discovered so far is Bombay High, located about 115 km off the Mumbai coast.
• Sagar Samrat, acquired from Japan, was the first mobile offshore drilling platform used by India. The country now manufactures offshore drilling platforms and equipment for deep-water exploration.
• Recent discoveries have come from offshore areas off the deltaic coasts of Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri and Mahanadi, and new finds have also been located in Assam.
• Oil and Natural Gas Company (ONGC) was established in 1956. Indian Oil Corporation was set up in 1964.

Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering

• With Government acquisition of shares of Burmah Oil Company in 1981, Oil India Limited became the second public sector undertaking engaged in oil exploration and production.
• Gas reserves are often associated with oil fields; exclusive natural gas fields have been located in Tripura, Rajasthan and offshore basins off Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa (Odisha).
• Gross production of natural gas rose from about 2.36 billion cubic metres in 1980-81 to 16.99 billion cubic metres in 1989-90.
• Natural gas production in 1998-99 was 27.427 billion cubic metres (BCM), compared with 26.401 BCM in 1997-98. Supply for 1998-99 was 22.163 BCM compared with 21.043 BCM in 1997-98. Balance recoverable reserves as on 1 April 1999 were estimated at 692 BCM. In 2005-06 production was 32.202 BCM.
• Hazira-Bijapur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) gas pipeline runs for about 1,730 km and carries around 18 million cubic metres of gas daily.
• GAIL (Gas Authority of India Limited) was incorporated in August 1984 with the immediate objective of constructing the cross-country HBJ gas pipeline.

Thermal Power

• Thermal power plants generate electricity by converting heat from combustion of fossil fuels (coal, petroleum and natural gas) into mechanical and then electrical energy.
• Fossil fuels are exhaustible and their combustion produces environmental pollution; this is a major demerit compared with some renewable sources.
• Electricity from any source (thermal, hydro or nuclear) remains the most convenient and versatile form of energy for industry, agriculture and domestic uses.
• Power generating plants in India historically have operated at around 53 per cent plant load factor (PLF), indicating scope for efficiency improvement and better utilisation.

Nuclear Power

• Because of limitations in domestic quality coal and petroleum, nuclear power has been planned to play a complementary role in India's energy mix.
• Uranium deposits are known in Singhbhum (then in Bihar; now in Jharkhand) and parts of Rajasthan.
• Thorium resources are associated with monazite sands along the shores of Kerala.
• Placer deposits found in Bihar have further added to the country's nuclear mineral reserves. The source text also mentions large reserves of Cheralite and Zircomium, and the presence of graphite in the eastern hills.
• Major nuclear power stations include: Tarapur (on the Maharashtra-Gujarat coast), Rawatbhata (near Kota, Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu) and Narora (on the banks of the Ganga in western Uttar Pradesh). Together these plants had an installed capacity approaching 1.5 million kW as reported in the source.

Non-Conventional and Renewable Energy Resources

Wind Energy

• The total wind energy potential of India is estimated at about 20,000 MW.
• Wind energy can be used for a range of rural applications such as water-pumping for irrigation, electricity generation for remote grids, and powering small industry and services.
• The States of Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Odisha (Orissa) are particularly well placed for wind energy development.
• Tamil Nadu accounts for the largest share of cumulative installed wind capacity (about 56.7 per cent), followed by Maharashtra at about 12.7 per cent as reported in the source.

Tidal Energy

• Regions such as the Gulf of Kachchh and Cambay (Gulf of Khambhat) are well suited for tidal power where high tidal ranges and narrow creeks can be harnessed to drive turbines and generate electricity.

Geo-Thermal Energy

• India has limited geothermal potential; however, efforts are made to exploit naturally occurring hot springs such as those at Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh) for direct-use applications like running cold-storage units and small-scale power generation where feasible.

Energy Plantation

• Low-quality, waste and denuded lands are used for plantations of fast-growing species with high calorific value to produce fuelwood, charcoal and other biofuels.
• Such plantations supply rural fuel needs, provide fodder and support rural employment while supplying biomass for decentralised energy systems.
• Indigenous development of gasifier and Stirling engine systems supports decentralised use of biomass. A 100 kW gasifier system has been established at Port Blair as an example of local deployment.

Energy from Urban Waste

• Conversion of municipal solid waste and sewage into energy is an emerging option for urban energy supply and waste management.
• A pilot plant has been set up in Delhi to treat solid municipal waste and convert it into energy; the pilot reportedly produces nearly 4 MW energy per year (as reported in the source).
• Sewage treatment plants can produce biogas and electricity for local use, reducing waste disposal problems and providing renewable energy.

Bagasse-Based Cogeneration

• Bagasse (the fibrous residue from sugarcane after juice extraction) is used in sugar mills for co-generation of heat and power.
• A co-generation programme launched in January 1994 envisaged creation of 300 MW power generation capacity during the Eighth Plan.
• It is estimated that Indian sugar mills can generate up to 2,000 MW surplus electricity during the crushing season.
• Typically, out of 10 MW generated by a mill, about 4 MW may meet the mill's own requirements while the remaining 6 MW can be fed into the local grid for irrigation or rural supply.
• Other agricultural residues such as rice husk are also being used to produce electricity in decentralised systems.

Solar Energy

• Solar energy is a universal, widely available source with large potential for India.
• Notable small-scale achievement includes solar cookers; there are about 6 lakh solar cookers in use in the country as reported.
• Successful applications of solar energy include cooking, water heating, desalination, space heating and crop drying.
• Solar energy is expected to become increasingly important as fossil fuel reserves decline, and for decentralised and off-grid applications in remote areas.

Key Concepts and Terms

• Concurrent list - indicates subjects on which both Central and State governments may legislate, of which power is one example.
• Plant Load Factor (PLF) - the ratio of actual electrical energy produced by a generating unit in a given period to the energy it could have produced at continuous full-power operation during the same period; a measure of utilisation.
• Conventional sources - coal, oil, gas, hydro and nuclear sources that have historically supplied bulk electricity; generally finite or with significant environmental impacts.
• Non-conventional / renewable sources - wind, solar, tidal, geothermal, biomass and waste-to-energy that are replenishable and usually cleaner at point of use.

Applications, Policy and Practical Considerations

• Central sector corporations play a central role in large-scale generation and national transmission planning; state utilities implement distribution and rural electrification.
• Diversification of energy mix - combining conventional and renewable sources - is important to ensure energy security, reduce pollution and provide decentralised supply to rural and remote regions.
• Energy-efficiency measures and optimisation of plant load factors are key to improving supply without proportionate increases in fuel consumption.
• Local-level solutions such as biomass plantations, bagasse cogeneration, decentralised gasifier systems and solar applications support rural employment, reduce transmission losses and make supply more resilient.
• Exploration and development of hydrocarbon and mineral resources require geological surveys, environmental clearances and community engagement to balance development with ecological and social impacts.

Summary: India's power sector is administered through a combination of Central and State institutions, with conventional fuels (coal, oil, natural gas, hydro and nuclear) forming the backbone of generation and an expanding set of renewable and decentralised options (wind, solar, tidal, geothermal, biomass and waste-to-energy) supplementing supply. Policy emphasis includes rural electrification, diversification of energy sources, improved utilisation of existing plants and the promotion of cleaner and decentralised technologies.