Agriculture-1

Table of Contents
1. Agriculture in India
2. Causes of Low Productivity in Indian Agriculture
3. Reorganisation of Indian Agriculture
4. Soil and Water Conservation
5. Crop Seasons
6. Cropping Pattern
7. Organic Farming
8. Shifting Cultivation
9. Dryland Farming (Rainfed Agriculture)
10. Arid Zones
11. Recent Developments (up to 2025)
12. Summary
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Agriculture in India

Agriculture remains the principal source of livelihood for a large section of India's population. It supplies food, raw materials to several industries and contributes to domestic trade and foreign exchange through exports of agricultural produce and processed food products.

• Major producers: India is the world's second-largest producer of rice and wheat and ranks high for many other agricultural products such as pulses, sugarcane, cotton, vegetables, eggs, and farmed fish.
• Diversity: India produces a wide range of crops including cereals, pulses, oilseeds, fibres, fruits, vegetables, and plantation crops; it is also a major producer of many dry fruits and roots/tuber crops.

Causes of Low Productivity in Indian Agriculture

Multiple structural, environmental and institutional factors have constrained productivity in Indian agriculture. The principal factors are:

• Rapid population growth: Increasing pressure on land leads to fragmentation, higher cropping intensity on marginal lands and progressive decline in land quality per capita.
• Deforestation and loss of vegetation cover: Reduced tree cover lowers input of organic matter (humus), diminishes soil moisture retention and increases the risk of soil degradation and higher soil temperatures affecting cropping cycles.
• Infrastructure projects affecting drainage: Construction of roads, railways and canals without adequate planning can disturb natural drainage, aggravate flooding and cause delayed sowing or crop loss.
• Extension of marginal lands: Cultivation of marginal and sub-marginal lands under population pressure results in lower average yields.
• Land ownership changes and inexperienced owners: Changes in ownership or tenancy due to land reforms sometimes transfer land to those without agricultural skills or tradition, lowering technical efficiency.
• Soil degradation: Erosion, salinization, alkalinity and waterlogging reduce the area of productive cultivable land.
• Subsistence farming: Predominance of subsistence agriculture limits surplus generation, savings and investment required for modernization.
• Erratic rainfall and pests: Uncertain monsoon, extreme weather events and pest/disease outbreaks reduce and make yields variable.
• Small, fragmented and uneconomic holdings: Fragmentation increases transaction costs and prevents economies of scale and mechanisation.
• Obsolete tools and low mechanisation: Reliance on traditional implements reduces labour productivity and input efficiency.
• Lack of organisation and leadership: Weak farmer organisations and extension systems constrain dissemination of improved practices.
• Inadequate irrigation and inputs: Poor coverage of assured irrigation and limited affordable access to quality fertilizers, seeds and plant protection materials.
• Concentration of land and inequitable land distribution: Large holdings controlled by a few and many smallholders below economic size lower overall land utilisation efficiency.
• Poor post-harvest storage and marketing: Insufficient storage and weak market linkages depress realisable prices and discourage investment in production.
• Inadequacy of non-farm services: Limited access to inexpensive credit, insurance, technical services and market information increases vulnerability and indebtedness among farmers.

Causes of WorldWide Land Degradation

Reorganisation of Indian Agriculture

Reorganisation and modernization of the agrarian system are essential to meet present-day needs and to raise productivity, income and rural welfare.

Raising agricultural productivity is essential for three broad objectives:

• To generate an agricultural surplus that can be invested in industrial growth or transferred to other sectors and to meet urban consumption needs.
• To release labour and other resources from agriculture for non-agricultural activities.
• To raise rural incomes, expand domestic markets for industrial goods and contribute to a more balanced national income distribution.

Improving Productivity in Agriculture

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and national development experience indicate several basic conditions necessary to improve agricultural productivity:

• Moderation of population growth to reduce pressure on land and resources.
• Stable and remunerative prices for agricultural products to provide incentives for investment.
• Adequate and efficient marketing facilities, including storage, processing and transport.
• Satisfactory and secure land tenure systems that encourage investment and sustainable practices.
• Availability of affordable credit, especially to small and marginal farmers, to finance improved inputs and technology.
• Provision of essential production inputs-high-quality seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, mechanisation-at reasonable prices.
• Education, research and agricultural extension to spread knowledge of improved and scientific farming methods.
• Large-scale public investments that individual farmers cannot undertake-major irrigation, land reclamation and resettlement schemes.
• Intensification and better use of land already under cultivation through scientific cropping, rotation and high-yielding varieties.
• Diversification of farm enterprises to include livestock, fisheries, poultry and agro-processing to raise overall farm productivity and incomes.

• These measures, combined with soil and water conservation and improved farm management, can substantially increase net agricultural production from existing resources.

Soil and Water Conservation

Soil and water conservation has been a core element of India's agricultural planning since the early Five Year Plans. Conservation programmes aim to arrest land degradation, conserve moisture, and improve the long-term productive potential of land.

• Conservation programmes focus on problem identification, appropriate technological interventions, supportive legislation and policy coordination at national and state levels.

Objectives of Soil and Water Conservation

• To slow the process of soil erosion and land degradation.
• To restore degraded lands and ensure ecological regeneration.
• To improve availability of soil moisture and groundwater recharge.
• To create micro-level irrigation potential through water harvesting structures.
• To enhance soil fertility through organic recycling and improved soil management.
• To extend effective root zone exploitation by mixed and companion farming systems.
• To increase aggregate biomass production and maintain ecosystem services.
• To generate rural employment through improved land-use planning and create community resilience against droughts and floods.
• National programmes address wind and water erosion, waterlogging, salinity and alkalinity, ravines and shifting cultivation, and they focus on preventing premature siltation of reservoirs and mitigating flood risk.
• Major schemes also aim at resettlement of shifting cultivators, restoration of degraded lands and watershed development in flood-prone catchments.

Measures Undertaken for Soil & Water Conservation

• A soil conservation scheme in the catchments of river valley projects was launched in the Third Five Year Plan to prevent premature siltation of multipurpose reservoirs.
• A centrally sponsored scheme for reclamation of alkali (usar) soils, launched during the Seventh Plan, provided assured irrigation, land levelling, deep ploughing, community drainage, soil amendments and organic manure; about 3.36 lakh hectares were reclaimed up to 1993-94 under this programme.
• Schemes to control shifting cultivation were implemented with central assistance in many north-eastern states and other tribal areas; from 1991-92 most such schemes were transferred to the state sector.
• An Integrated Watershed Management scheme for catchments of flood-prone rivers was launched during the Sixth Plan to increase catchment absorption of rainfall and reduce erosion and siltation.
• All India Soil and Land-use Survey Organisation (AISLUSO) conducts catchment delineation and priorities for watershed development from its regional centres.
• The National Land Use and Conservation Board (NLCB) coordinates national land-use policy and works with State Land Use Boards (SLUBs) to prevent indiscriminate diversion of good agricultural land and to promote scientific land management.

Crop Seasons

In India, crop seasons are broadly classified into:

(i) Kharif (monsoon season): crops sown with onset of southwest monsoon and harvested at the end of monsoon/autumn.

(ii) Rabi (winter season): crops sown in winter and harvested in spring.

In many regions the cropping calendar allows two harvests and, in irrigated pockets, occasionally three harvests a year.

Classification of Crops

Kharif Crops

Kharif crops need abundant water and warm weather. They are sown in June-July with the monsoon and harvested in September-October. Important kharif crops include rice, jowar (sorghum), maize, cotton, groundnut, jute, sugarcane, bajra (pearl millet), millets, pulses, forage grasses, vegetables and others.

Rabi Crops

Rabi crops grow in the cooler months; sowing generally occurs in November and harvesting in April-May. Principal rabi crops are wheat, gram (chickpea) and oilseeds such as mustard and rapeseed.

Zaid Crops

Zaid crops are grown in the short summer season (March-June) in irrigated areas where early-maturing crops are possible. Typical zaid crops include melon, watermelon, cucumber, summer vegetables, and short-duration pulses.

Cropping Pattern

The cropping pattern is the proportion of area under different crops in a region during a particular period; it reflects agro-ecological potential, socio-economic preferences and market signals.

Factors Affecting Cropping Pattern

• Agro-climatic conditions: soil type, climate, rainfall distribution and availability of groundwater.
• Production aims: subsistence vs market orientation, scale of production and farm size.
• Availability of technology: irrigation, fertilizers, seeds, mechanisation and extension services.
• Market factors: price signals, transport facilities and distance to markets.
• Personal and socio-economic factors: household food needs, fodder requirements, labour availability and tradition.

Characteristic Features of Cropping Pattern in India

Key characteristics are:

• Great diversity of crops: Climatic and soil diversity produces a wide range of crop patterns across India - e.g., rice predominates in eastern and coastal lowlands; jowar, bajra and groundnut are important in drier plateaux and peninsular zones; wheat and oilseeds dominate many irrigated plains of north-west India.
• Preponderance of food crops: Around three-fourths of cropped area is under food crops - major cereals (rice, wheat, millets) occupy a substantial share, followed by pulses and oilseeds. Commercial crops like tobacco, tea, coffee, rubber and plantation crops occupy smaller areas but are important regionally.
• Regional specialisation: Tea and jute in eastern India; cotton and groundnut in parts of the peninsula; sugarcane in irrigated belts; fruits and horticulture in suitable hill and valley areas.

Intensity of Cropping

• Definition: Cropping intensity (or cropping index) measures the number of crops grown on a field in one agricultural year and is expressed as the ratio of gross cropped area to net sown area, expressed in percent.

Formula (expressed with standard notation):

\( \text{Cropping Intensity (\%)} = \dfrac{\text{Gross Cropped Area}}{\text{Net Sown Area}} \times 100 \)

Example - worked through:

Gross cropped area equals the sum of areas cropped in all seasons on a given land. If a farmer has 5 ha of net sown area and grows a kharif crop on all 5 ha and subsequently grows a rabi crop on 2 ha of the same land, then:

Gross cropped area = 5 ha (kharif) + 2 ha (rabi) = 7 ha

Net sown area = 5 ha

Therefore, cropping intensity = (7 / 5) × 100 = 140%

• Higher cropping intensity reflects more efficient use of land and depends primarily on irrigation availability, use of early-maturing and high-yielding varieties, fertilisers, mechanisation (tractors, pumps, seed drills), and plant protection measures.
• National averages vary by state; irrigated regions like Punjab may record very high cropping intensities while dry regions record much lower values.

Organic Farming

Organic farming emphasises production using biological processes and natural inputs rather than synthetic fertilisers and pesticides. It seeks sustainable, ecological balance and the maintenance of soil health through organic matter, composting and biological pest control.

When practised well, organic systems can achieve yields comparable to modern systems in many contexts while improving environmental quality and farm resilience.

Advantages of Organic Farming

• Reduced pollution of soil and water from chemical residues.
• Lower energy use because of reduced dependence on synthetic agrochemicals.
• No chemical residues in produce (pesticides, hormones, synthetic fertilisers).
• Less mechanisation and lower input costs in some systems.
• Reduced incidence of pest resurgence associated with overuse of chemicals.
• Potentially comparable yields where sound biological management is practised.
• Organic produce often fetches premium prices in markets.
• Supports long-term sustainability of agro-ecosystems.

Problems of Organic Farming

• Transition period losses: moving from conventional to organic management can reduce yields for several years as soil biological balance is restored.
• Initial decline in production or risk of crop loss if conversion is rapid and unsupported.
• Residual effects of prior chemical use may persist and delay full benefits for 3-4 years in some soils.
• Market access, certification costs and lack of institutional support can deter farmers from switching without policy incentives.

Significance of Organic Farming

• Organic farming addresses long-term sustainability concerns about soil erosion, salinity, groundwater depletion and biodiversity loss caused by intensive conventional agriculture.
• It reduces the risk of toxic residues in food and the environment and can improve livelihoods where niche market linkages exist.
• Organic and regenerative practices (agroforestry, cover crops, crop rotations, composting) help rebuild soil organic matter, sequester carbon and enhance resilience to climatic variability.

Shifting Cultivation

Shifting cultivation (slash-and-burn) involves clearing a forest patch, burning vegetation, cultivating for a few years and then abandoning the site when soil fertility declines; a new patch is then cleared elsewhere.

Burning of cleared vegetation provides nutrients temporarily but prolonged and widespread practice leads to deforestation, soil erosion and downstream flooding.

Shifting Cultivation

• In India this practice is locally called jhum (Assam), ponam (Kerala), podu (Andhra/Orissa) and by other local names elsewhere. Historically it was practised by many tribal communities over large tracts.
• Major crops in jhum systems include dry paddy, maize, small millets and sometimes cash crops; the practice remains in states such as Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, parts of Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
• Unchecked shifting cultivation contributes to forest loss, erosion on hill slopes and increased flood risk in the plains below.
• Response strategies include participatory watershed development, settled agriculture with improved inputs, agroforestry, livelihood diversification and community education to reduce environmental damage while protecting tribal livelihoods.

Dryland Farming (Rainfed Agriculture)

About 70% of India's arable land is rainfed. Rainfed or dryland farming depends primarily on rainfall for crop production and is subject to high variability in rainfall amount and distribution.

Even with full irrigation potential, a significant proportion of arable land will continue to be rainfed; cereals (millets), pulses, oilseeds and cotton are commonly cultivated in these areas.

Dryland farming

Types of Rainfed Agriculture

• Rainfed wetland farming: Occurs where rainfall is adequate and well distributed during the crop season; drainage may be the concern rather than moisture conservation.
• Rainfed dryland farming: Occurs under low and erratic rainfall with frequent moisture deficits; here moisture conservation is essential.

Problems of Dryland Farming

• Erratic rainfall leads to high year-to-year fluctuations in output and income.
• Soils in many rainfed areas are subject to erosion and nutrient depletion, reducing moisture-holding capacity and productivity.
• Low and variable yields make investment in improved inputs risky without safety nets or assured water supply.
• High dependence on a limited range of crops and short growing seasons in some zones.

Measures to Improve Production & Productivity

• Soil and rainwater conservation (contour bunding, check dams, farm ponds) to increase effective moisture availability.
• Improved cropping systems using drought-tolerant and short-duration varieties, intercropping and crop rotations.
• Watershed-based integrated farming systems combining crops, horticulture, livestock and agroforestry to diversify income and stabilise livelihoods.
• Investment in micro-irrigation (drip and sprinkler) and water harvesting to expand assured moisture supply.
• Extension, credit and market support targeted at smallholders to enable adoption of improved practices and value addition.
• National initiatives such as the National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA) emphasise integrated watershed management and community-based resource management.

Arid Zones

Arid zones have very low annual rainfall, high evaporation and chronic water scarcity; agriculture is limited and specialised depending on available water resources.

India's arid regions are of two kinds:

• Hot arid region:  India is spread over 31.7 million hectares-61% of it is in west Rajasthan and 20% in Gujarat, the rest being in Haryana, Punjab, and Karnataka. The rainfall varies from 0-40 cm.
• Cold arid region: High-altitude areas such as Ladakh with very low precipitation and very short growing seasons (often limited to 4-5 months). Short-duration cereals, fodder, and hardy horticultural crops are cultivated; animals like yak and pashmina goats are central to livelihoods.

Recent Developments (up to 2025)

Indian agriculture has seen important changes in technology adoption, policy, climate adaptation and market linkages in recent years. The following points summarise key trends without providing source-specific numerical estimates.

Technological Advancements

• Drones and precision farming: Increasing use of UAVs for crop monitoring, targeted pesticide application and field mapping improves input efficiency and timeliness of operations.
• Artificial intelligence and data tools: AI-based models for yield prediction, pest/disease forecasting and soil-health assessment are being adopted to support data-driven decisions.
• Digital advisory systems: Mobile apps, remote sensing and satellite data provide weather advisories, market information and crop management recommendations to farmers.
• Blockchain: Emerging use of distributed ledger technology for traceability, quality assurance and to enhance transparency in supply chains-particularly for organic and high-value exports.

Government Policies and Schemes

• PM-KISAN (2019): Direct income support to small and marginal farmers to improve cash flow for input purchase and reduce liquidity constraints.
• Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (2020): Support for farm-gate infrastructure-cold stores, warehouses, primary processing-to reduce post-harvest losses and strengthen value chains.
• MSP and procurement policies: Continued reforms and debates aim to improve price support mechanisms and market access for farmers.

Climate Change and Adaptation

• Climate-smart agriculture: Promotion of drought-tolerant varieties, efficient irrigation (drip/sprinkler), conservation agriculture and agroforestry to increase resilience to variable climate.
• Disaster risk management: Expansion of crop insurance schemes and improved early-warning systems to mitigate losses from floods, droughts and heat waves.

Global Trade and International Agreements

• Export promotion: Policies have focused on increasing exports of high-value agricultural products including organic, processed and specialty foods.
• WTO and trade negotiations: International trade rules influence domestic subsidy policies, market access and competitiveness of Indian agricultural commodities.

Impact of COVID-19

• Supply-chain disruptions: The pandemic highlighted vulnerabilities-labour shortages, transport bottlenecks and market closures-leading to targeted government interventions.
• Policy responses: Relief packages, credit support and measures to keep agri-markets functional were implemented to stabilise farm incomes and supply chains.

Sustainable Agriculture and Organic Growth

• Growth of organic farming: Increasing area under organic cultivation, certification support and rising consumer demand have encouraged expansion in domestic and export markets.
• Regenerative practices: Promotion of cover cropping, green manures, agroforestry and soil-carbon enhancing practices to restore soil health and biodiversity.

Updated Observations

By the mid-2020s agricultural production and productivity have improved in many regions due to combined effects of technology adoption, government support and diversification. Exact production figures and GDP shares vary by source and year; users should consult official statistical releases for precise, time-specific numbers.

Emerging Challenges

• Water scarcity: Groundwater depletion and competing water demands require expansion of micro-irrigation, demand management and recharge measures.
• Soil health: Reversing degradation through integrated nutrient management, biofertilisers and organic amendments is a priority.
• Farmer distress: Addressing indebtedness, price volatility and psychosocial stress remains central to rural policy agendas.

Research and Development

• Genetically modified crops: Continued research and debates on GM technology (e.g., pest-resistant varieties) focus on yield benefits, biosafety and regulatory frameworks.
• Biofortification: Development and deployment of nutrient-enriched varieties (iron-rich millets, zinc-fortified wheat, etc.) is an active research area to address micronutrient deficiencies.

Summary

Indian agriculture is diverse and central to national food security and rural livelihoods. Raising productivity sustainably requires integrated action across soil and water conservation, improved inputs and technology, secure land and credit systems, strengthened marketing and post-harvest infrastructure, and climate-resilient practices. Policy support, extension services and community-based resource management remain key to achieving higher and more stable agricultural output while conserving natural resources.