Agriculture- 3 - Geography for UPSC CSE PDF Download

RELAY CROPPING

Relay cropping is an intensive cropping practice in which one crop is undersown in a standing crop. In relay cropping, a succeeding crop is sown before the harvest of the current crop so that the two crops grow for a period simultaneously. This practice reduces the time the land remains fallow between crops and can increase land-use efficiency, improve nutrient cycling, and reduce erosion.

Maize-soybean relay cropping

Climatic Regions of India

• Tropical monsoon region - average temperatures between 18-29 °C and rainfall more than 200 cm; includes western coastal plains, Assam and north-eastern States.
• Tropical savannah region - temperatures from about 18 °C to over 40 °C and rainfall 75-100 cm; covers much of the peninsular plateau including parts of Tamil Nadu.
• Tropical steppes - similar temperatures to the savannah but rainfall 40-75 cm; occurs in rain-shadow areas.
• Sub-tropical steppes - varying temperatures and rainfall 30-60 cm; stretches from Punjab to Kutch and from the Gangetic plains towards parts of the peninsula.
• Tropical and sub-tropical deserts - temperatures roughly 11-50 °C and rainfall less than 30 cm; includes the Thar desert of Rajasthan and deserts in Kutch.
• Humid sub-tropical - covers the southern slopes of the Himalaya from Punjab to Assam; rainfall exceeds 100 cm in the east and decreases westwards; winters are very cold and summers hot.
• Mountain climate - includes trans-Himalayan, Himalayan and Karakoram regions with complex altitudinal variations in temperature, precipitation and vegetation.

Low Yields in Dryland Areas

• Dryland areas receive low total rainfall and are subject to wide variability in timing and amount of precipitation.
• Where irrigation is lacking, crop productivity is low due to moisture stress and erratic rainfall.
• Erratic monsoon behaviour often causes droughts in dryland regions, reducing yields and increasing risk to farmers.
• Major dryland crops include millets (jowar, bajra, ragi), oilseeds (mustard, rapeseed) and pulses; in slightly wetter parts wheat and barley are also grown.
• Yields from dryland farming may be increased by:
  • Better irrigation facilities and improved water-management practices, such as micro-irrigation and water harvesting.
  • Cultivation of drought-tolerant and short-duration varieties.
  • Use of balanced fertilisers and high-yielding varieties (HYVs) adapted to low-moisture conditions.
• In 1970-71, schemes for integrated development of dryland agriculture were launched and included in national development programmes; centrally sponsored projects have been implemented to intensify and improve dryland production.

Fallow Land and Wasteland Cultivation

Wasteland is broadly of two kinds: cultivable wasteland and non-cultivable wasteland. Cultivable wasteland has potential for agricultural use but lies fallow due to reasons such as waterlogging, salinity, soil erosion, non-availability of water, deforestation or unfavourable physiography. Non-cultivable wastelands are essentially barren and not suitable for agriculture or forestry (for example, permanently snow-covered Himalayan zones or hyper-arid desert tracts).

Increasing cultivation over fallow land

• The extent of wasteland in India is approximately 53.3 million hectares. The largest wasteland areas occur in Jammu & Kashmir and Rajasthan; together they account for nearly half of the country's total wastelands.
• The Kashmir wastelands are largely unsuitable for cultivation, whereas many wastelands in Rajasthan can be brought under the plough if adequate inputs (water, soil amendments, infrastructure) are provided.
• Cultivable wastelands can be reclaimed by removing the causes that made them fallow. Measures include:
  • Removal of soil salinity by leaching and proper drainage to dissolve and flush out sodium, calcium and magnesium salts.
  • Large-scale irrigation schemes such as the Indira Gandhi Canal to bring arid tracts under cultivation.
  • Soil conservation measures-bunding, terracing, contour ploughing and leveling of uneven land-to prevent erosion and improve moisture retention.
• Cultivable wastelands in Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat suffer from salinity caused by over-irrigation; deforestation has created wastelands in parts of Assam, the Western and Eastern Ghats, and Tamil Nadu.

Research Effort in Biological Nitrogen Fixation

Plants and microbes use nitrogen in the form of ammonia to synthesise amino acids and other nitrogenous compounds. The biological conversion of atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3) is called biological nitrogen-fixation. This process is carried out mainly by certain free-living bacteria, symbiotic bacteria (e.g., Rhizobium with legumes) and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae).

• Leguminous plants and their symbionts have been used in agriculture for centuries; modern research can exploit these systems more effectively by selecting and breeding improved legume varieties and more efficient microbial strains.
• Using legume-rhizobial combinations provides a built-in nitrogen source for cropping systems and reduces dependence on synthetic nitrogen fertilisers.
• Research frontiers include genetic improvement of both microbial strains and host plants to increase nitrogen-fixing efficiency and competitiveness in soil ecosystems.
• Many naturally occurring nitrogen-fixing strains are comparatively inefficient; research aims to develop genetically improved strains that are highly competitive, have broader host ranges and can establish effective associations with diverse crops.
• Introducing competitive, high-efficiency strains into soils can improve plant-bacterial interactions and enhance crop nitrogen supply.

Usefulness of Biofertilisers and Efforts to Improve Their Utility

• Although nitrogen fixers occur naturally in soils, enrichment with effective strains benefits crop yields substantially.
• Chemical fertilisers give an immediate but often temporary response; well-applied biofertilisers can provide lasting benefits by maintaining soil biological activity and fertility.
• Composite biofertilisers (mixed inoculants of beneficial microbes) can increase soil fertility and crop performance.
• Cost of biofertilisers is relatively low. Proper use requires correct inoculation of seed or soil, good crop management, and provision of non-nitrogen nutrients for optimal response.
• The Rhizobium inoculant is effective for pulses and leguminous oilseeds (soybean, groundnut); blue-green algae (Glyconostoc etc.) are useful in lowland paddy systems.
• Legumes are used as soil-improving crops in intercropping and rotations; they form an integral part of cropping-system research and sustainable farming systems.
• Stronger linkages between basic researchers and mission-oriented, applied scientists will accelerate practical adoption of biological nitrogen fixation technologies.
• Biofertiliser development centres are being established in the government and private sectors; public-private partnerships and joint ventures can scale up biofertiliser production and distribution.

Process of rhizobium inoculation

Policy and Institutional Measures: Revitalising the Agri-sector

• Set up a national biotechnology venture capital fund to support induction of biotechnological tools aimed at improving yields, and build a large pool of trained extension workers to transfer technology to farmers.
• Promote cultivation of crops that give India a comparative advantage in world markets and aim to capture large market shares for these crops.
• Reduce post-harvest losses through technological upgrades in handling, storage and processing.
• Stimulate investment in agro-processing by offering incentives (for example, long tax breaks) to units setting up processing complexes in rural or backward areas.
• Abolish local levies such as octroi and multiple local taxes; replace them with a single-point tax on agricultural produce at a uniform rate to permit free movement of produce across the country.
• Address international trade obligations (for example, GATT/WTO issues) promptly to exploit trade opportunities where Indian agri-exports can be price-competitive.
• Expand the definition of plantation industries to include crops such as oil palm, cashew and horticultural plantations; promote hardwood plantations to arrest declining forest cover.
• Encourage companies to link farmers to banks and capital markets, channel rural savings into productive uses and provide competitive credit; enable farmers to participate in capital markets.
• Permit hedging of agricultural products on international commodity exchanges to reduce price risk; Government may develop collaborative models with exchanges such as the Chicago Board of Trade.
• Allow farmer participation in equity of agricultural companies (for example, up to 20%) to transform corporate entities into farmer-linked organisations and protect producer interests.
• Combined and right actions can lift Indian agriculture towards global competitiveness and leadership within a short period.

Measures to Augment Rice Exports

• Redefine export grades and restrict cultivation to a few varieties tailored for export quality.
• Organise cultivation, procurement and processing for export-quality rice through integrated value-chains.
• Modernise milling and processing industries to meet international quality standards.
• Maintain quality control at all stages, ideally through a strong independent agency.
• Plan strategic market development backed by intensive research focused on export needs.
• Expand and improve storage and logistics at sea ports to preserve quality for export consignments.
• Introduce differentiated minimum export prices for different grades (for example for basmati and non-basmati export grades).
• Create a rice export promotion council to coordinate stakeholders and marketing efforts.
• Given the low per-hectare yields of rice in many areas, there is significant scope to increase yield and produce value-added export quality rice for stable surpluses.
• Success in rice trade requires sustained commitment to establish reliable, remunerative markets for Indian rice.

Reasons for Rapid Growth of the Rubber Industry

• India is the fourth largest natural-rubber producing country after Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia, with around eight lakh (800,000) smallholders. Average holding size is approximately 0.5 hectare while productivity levels compare favourably with Malaysia.
• Main factors behind the rapid growth include attractive financial and technical incentives from the Rubber Board, an efficient extension network, remunerative and relatively stable prices, and availability of high-yielding clones such as RRII 105.
• From 1993-94 the Rubber Board implemented a five-year World Bank Rubber Development Project with the following components:
  • Replanting of 40,000 hectares of old and uneconomic plantations.
  • New planting of 30,000 hectares.
  • Enhancing productivity on 60,000 hectares.
  • Improving processing facilities and strengthening research and training activities of the Board.
  • Under the project, planting assistance to growers was enhanced - for example from Rs. 5,000 to Rs. 8,000 per hectare and from Rs. 2,700 to Rs. 3,000 per hectare for poly-bagged plants. The total proposed investment under the project was about Rs. 453 crores.

India's Export Performance of Fresh Vegetables

• India's exports of fresh vegetables have been erratic because production, processing and trade systems are not fully integrated for export orientation; exports often come from surplus produce in terminal markets such as Mumbai and Delhi.
• A dedicated system for growing exclusively for export has not been established; suitable varieties, quality standards, required volumes and seasonal timing have not been sufficiently supported by R&D.
• Examples: For onions, quality in shape, size, colour and shelf life has been difficult to achieve due to inefficiencies in seed production and distribution of improved varieties; part of kharif onion crop is exported during December-April from Maharashtra and Gujarat.
• Vegetable production near metropolitan peripheries raises production costs (land, labour, inputs) and, until recently, poor transport links limited exports; improved roads have partly alleviated this constraint.
• Cold-chain infrastructure (refrigerated transport, cold storage) for vegetables remains inadequate; expensive air freight and limited refrigerated cargo space constrain fresh exports. Chartering refrigerated containers has been tried for mango and grape exports.
• Suitably shaped varieties (e.g., short, round okra for export markets) are often lacking - research on variety development for export specifications is a priority.
• Processed-vegetable exports are constrained by poor processing technology, low productivity and small landholdings; mechanised cultivation of dedicated processing varieties could reduce costs but is restricted by land ceiling laws.
• Intensive R&D is required to lower production costs of processed products, improve quality and adopt advanced processing technologies.

Flower Export Strategies (Floriculture)

• India has potential in floriculture due to favourable climates for certain flower species; floriculture is therefore a policy priority.
• Several private and multinational enterprises have shown interest in this capital-intensive, high-tech sector; some units are already operational and more are planned.
• Potential export commodities include roses, carnations, chrysanthemums, orchids, gladioli, dry flowers, live plants and micro-propagated plantlets.
• Strategies for floriculture exports include:
  • Identification of product/region as an "intensive floriculture zone" to achieve quality and quantity targets.
  • Creation of infrastructure and technology such as pre-cooling and cool storage facilities.
  • Make planting material and inputs widely available - fertilisers, pesticides, growing media and packaging materials.
  • Adopt export-specific production practices; Government policy change permitting 100% export-oriented units to sell up to 50% of production domestically will help units manage surplus.
  • Strengthen market intelligence networks to advise producers on international demand, grading, packing and consumer preferences.
  • Establish service centres and auction houses in potential zones.
  • Promote production-promotion activities and advertising for export markets.
  • Create cooperative florist organisations to safeguard growers and coordinate marketing.
  • Government support for the sector, particularly export-oriented floriculture, is essential because global opportunities are often short-lived and require timely action.

Green Manures

Green manures - cover crops grown to be incorporated into the soil - play a major role in integrated plant nutrition. Their benefits extend beyond nitrogen addition to include recycling of sub-soil nutrients and improvement of soil physical properties. Growing green manure crops elsewhere and transporting green leaf material for incorporation, or using tender twigs and loppings of leguminous trees, greatly expands the practical application of green manuring.

• A good green manure such as Sesbania (Dhaincha) can add nitrogen equivalent to 60-80 kg N/ha.
• On-farm trials show average paddy yield increases proportional to green manure addition; a rule of thumb often used is that one tonne of green manure is roughly equivalent in effect to about 9-10 kg urea in terms of crop response.
• Green manuring is practised on less than 5% of cropped area; adoption depends on the relative economics of competing land uses, the cost and labour of raising green manure, and the price of fertiliser nitrogen.
• Leguminous trees planted in social forestry programmes provide green leaf manure and should be prioritised to supply biomass for soil improvement.

Green manure

Bio-pesticides

Bio-pesticides are microbial or biological agents used for pest control. They are environment-friendly, generally non-carcinogenic and often highly specific to particular insect pests. The most important microbial insecticide is the protein toxin produced by the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), widely commercialised in many countries.

Bio-pesticide

• In India, use of some Bt products was restricted prior to 1991 because of concerns about impacts on silkworms; non-sporulating strains of Bt toxic to specific pests have been developed (for example, at the NRCPB) to minimise risks.
• Among viral bio-pesticides, nuclear polyhedrosis viruses (NPVs) and granulosis viruses (GVs) are promising because of their insect specificity and potential for large-scale production.
• Some entomopathogenic fungi have been developed commercially - for example, formulations for Colorado potato beetle (Boverin in Russia) and pathogens used against sugarcane pests (such as Metaquion in Brazil).

Vermicomposting

Vermicomposting is the process of using earthworms to decompose various kinds of organic waste and produce a nutrient-rich manure. Earthworm excreta (vermicast) contain essential nutrients including available nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), and beneficial microflora.

Vermicomposting

• Earthworms are useful for land reclamation, soil structure improvement and organic waste management.
• They can bioaccumulate certain heavy metals and residues, serve as protein-rich animal feed, and function as waste controllers and compost manufacturers.

Swaminathania salitolerans

Scientists at the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai, isolated a new bacterium from wild rice that can both fix atmospheric nitrogen and solubilise tricalcium phosphate. This dual-function bacterium has been named Swaminathania salitolerans in honour of Prof. M.S. Swaminathan, the acknowledged leader of India's Green Revolution.

• The bacterium shows high tolerance to salinity and is a promising biofertiliser candidate for saline and normal soils; it can be used within integrated plant nutrient management to reduce mineral nitrogen and phosphorus application, lower input costs, reduce nitrogen losses and improve nutrient uptake by crops.

Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)

There is a misconception that higher fertiliser use always leads to higher yields. Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) is a flexible approach designed to maximise nutrient-use efficiency and farm profitability while reducing chemical inputs. Evidence shows that highest productivity can be achieved with balanced use of organic and inorganic sources rather than indiscriminate fertiliser application.

Integrated nutrient management

Principles to guide INM include:

• Assessment of baseline soil fertility and climatic conditions before recommending nutrients.
• Consideration of the crop within the crop rotation or cropping system and setting realistic yield targets.
• Maintaining at least 30% of total NPK nutrients from organic sources (green manures, compost, farmyard manure) to sustain soil health and biological activity.

Possible Hazards and Benefits of GM (Transgenic) Crops

Genetic modification (transgenic crops) carries potential benefits and risks. A balanced assessment is necessary before adoption and deployment.

• Possible hazards:
  • Reduction in biodiversity over the long term if genetically uniform transgenic crops displace diverse traditional varieties.
  • Horizontal transfer of transgenes to related wild or weedy relatives via pollen, possibly producing so-called superweeds.
  • Pest and pathogen populations may evolve new, more virulent biotypes if selection pressure is applied by transgenic resistance traits.
  • Effects on non-target organisms and agro-ecosystem ecology could arise from novel gene products.
  • Some transgene products, intermediates or degradation products may pose potential biohazards to humans or animals and therefore require rigorous safety assessment.
• Direct benefits of GM crops:
  • Reduced use of broad-spectrum insecticides where insect-resistant traits are effective.
  • Lower production risk and reduced input costs for farmers.
  • Improved yields and profitability in many cases.
  • Ability to cultivate in non-traditional or marginal areas using stress-tolerant traits.
  • Potentially brighter economic outlook for industries dependent on particular crops (for example, cotton).
  • Improved safety for farm workers and neighbours due to reduced pesticide exposure.
• Indirect benefits of GM crops:
  • Reduced broad-spectrum insecticide use benefits beneficial arthropods and biological control agents.
  • Improved management of certain non-target pests through enhanced biological control.
  • Reduced risks to farmland wildlife and lower chemical runoff into water bodies.
  • Lower levels of atmospheric pollution associated with pesticide spraying.

Transgenic technology can contribute to a second Green Revolution, but apprehensions and misconceptions persist-especially concerns about gene flow to other organisms. It is important to note that gene transfer is a natural process and conventional plant breeding has long used crossing with wild relatives to introduce desirable traits. One well-known modified gene for insect resistance, Cry1Ac, was further optimised by Monsanto and deployed commercially in cotton hybrids marketed under the brand name Bollgard. Indian seed firms such as the Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds Company (MAHYCO) have developed hybrids incorporating such traits; MECH lines (MAHYCO Early Cotton Hybrid series, e.g., MECH-12, MECH-162, MECH-184, MECH-915) are examples of hybrid breeding efforts using incorporated resistance traits.