Class 10 History Chapter 1 Previous Year Questions - The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Ans: Italy was unified after numerous struggles and movements as described below:
(1) Italy had a long history of political fragmentation among various dynastic states. Sardinia-Piedmont was the only one of seven states ruled by an Italian princely house.
(2) Other regions were ruled by non-Italian rulers. The Italian language had multiple regional and local variations.
(3) In 1830, Giuseppe Mazzini established a secret society called Young Italy and tried to bring about a revolutionary uprising but failed. Thereafter, war was the only resort left.
(4) Chief Minister Cavour led the movement of unification and diplomatically joined Sardinia-Piedmont, in an alliance with France after defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
(5) Armed volunteers led by Giuseppe Garibaldi also supported the troops and they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of Two Sicilies. They were supported by peasants in driving out Spanish rulers.
(6) After continuous struggles, Victor Emmanuel II was finally declared the king of unified Italy in 1861.

Ans: The process of nation state building in Germany took place in the following manner:
(1) Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle class Germans who tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation state governed by an elected parliament.
(2) This liberal movement faced repression from the monarchy and military, supported by the large landowners known as Junkers.
(3) Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification. Its Chief Minister, Otto von Bismarck was the architect of this process, which was carried out with the help of the Prussian Army and bureaucracy.
(4) Over seven years, three wars against Austria, Denmark, and France resulted in Prussian victories, culminating in the unification of Germany.
(5) On 18 January 1871, the Prussian King, William I, was declared the German Emperor in a ceremony at Versailles.

Ans: (a)
Assertion (A): On Prussian initiative 'Zollverein' Customs Union was formed.
This statement is true. The Zollverein was indeed initiated by Prussia in the early 19th century, with the purpose of consolidating the fragmented German states economically.
Reason (R): It was to create a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods, people, and capital.
This statement is also true. The primary aim of the Zollverein was to eliminate internal tariffs and barriers among the German states, fostering an integrated economic zone where goods, people, and capital could move freely. This economic integration was seen as a step toward political unity in Germany.
Since both statements are true and the reason correctly explains the purpose behind the formation of the Zollverein Customs Union, the correct answer is (a): Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Ans: (b) Italy 
Giuseppe Garibaldi was a key figure in the unification of Italy . He was an Italian general, politician, and revolutionary who played a major role in the Risorgimento , the movement for Italian unification.

Ans: (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is correct explanation of (A). 

• Assertion (A): The most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 was the Balkans. This is true because the Balkans were a region of intense nationalist movements and conflicts, particularly between the different ethnic groups and empires.
• Reason (R): A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. This is also true. The Ottoman Empire controlled much of the Balkan region, which contributed to nationalist tensions as various groups in the Balkans sought independence or autonomy.

The reason correctly explains the assertion, as the control of the Ottoman Empire over the Balkans was one of the key factors that led to nationalist tensions.

Ans: (c) II, I, IV and III 
1. Defeat of Napoleon (III): Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 , marking the end of the Napoleonic Wars. This is the earliest event in the list.
2. Treaty of Constantinople (I): The Treaty of Constantinople was signed in 1832 . It recognized Greece as an independent nation after the Greek War of Independence (1821–1832). This event occurred after the defeat of Napoleon.
3. Unification of Germany (IV): The unification of Germany occurred in 1871 after the Franco-Prussian War. This marked the formation of the German Empire under Prussian leadership.
4. Unification of Italy (II): The unification of Italy (also known as the Risorgimento) was completed in 1870 when Rome became the capital of Italy, following the capture of the Papal States. This happened just before the unification of Germany.
Chronological Order: III → I → II → IV
(Defeat of Napoleon → Treaty of Constantinople → Unification of Italy → Unification of Germany)
Correct Option: (c) II, I, IV and III

Ans: (b)
The following events took place in the following sequence: 
(1) Napoleonic wars- 1797 
(2) The Treaty of Vienna- 1814-1815 
(3) Greek Struggle for Independence- 1821 
(4) Slav Nationalism in Ottoman Empire-1905

Ans: Romanticism was a significant cultural movement in Europe that fostered a unique sense of nationalist sentiment. Key features include:

• Focus on emotions and intuition over reason and scientific thought.
• Emphasis on mystical feelings and the collective heritage of nations.
• Influence of artists and poets who celebrated cultural roots and common pasts.

Romanticism played a crucial role in shaping the idea of the nation through art, poetry, and music.

Ans: Frédéric Sorrieu was a French artist who, in 1848, created a series of four prints. These prints depicted his vision of a world composed of democratic and social republics.

• The first print shows people from Europe and America, of all ages and backgrounds, marching towards the Statue of Liberty.
• Liberty is represented as a female figure, holding the torch of Enlightenment and the Charter of the Rights of Man.
• Above them, figures like Christ and angels symbolise fraternity among nations.
• Sorrieu's work reflects the hopes for unity and democracy during a time of significant political change.

Ans: The ideas of national unity were closely allied to the ideology of liberalism in Europe during the nineteenth century. This can be asserted by the following statements: 
(1) The term liberalism is derived from the Latin word ‘liber’ which means free. Revolutionaries stood for the freedom of individuals and equality of all before the law. 
(2) Liberals began a revolution in 1848. They began many national movements pioneered by the educated middle class to fight for the cause of liberty, freedom and unification for their nation. 
(3) Politically, the idea of liberalism advocated for a constitutional and represented government through Parliament. Hence, the ideologies of liberalism and nationalism were closely allied.

Ans: (a)

After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European governments were primarily influenced by conservatism. Key characteristics included:

• Emphasis on preserving traditional institutions such as the monarchy, the Church, and social hierarchies.
• A recognition that modernisation could strengthen these institutions.
• Formation of conservative regimes that were largely autocratic and intolerant of dissent.
• Implementation of censorship laws to control public discourse.

The Congress of Vienna in 1815 aimed to restore the monarchies overthrown by Napoleon and establish a new conservative order in Europe.

Ans: (a)
ln 1815, European powers like Britain, Russia; Prussia, and Austria collectively defeated Napoleon.

Ans: (d)

Industrialization began in England during the second half of the eighteenth century.

• Other countries, such as France, Germany, and Italy, started industrialising later, mainly in the late nineteenth century.
• This early industrialisation in England led to the rise of new social groups, including a working class and a middle class of industrialists and professionals.

Ans: (a)

In July 1830, the first liberalist-nationalist upheaval occurred in France.

• The Bourbon kings, restored to power after 1815, were overthrown.
• Liberal revolutionaries established a constitutional monarchy.
• Louis Philippe became the head of this new government.
• This revolution inspired further uprisings, including one in Brussels, leading to Belgium's independence.

Ans: (b)

Metternich remarked, "When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches a cold." This statement was made in the context of the July Revolution in France, which ignited uprisings across Europe.

• The July Revolution led to a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe as its head.
• This event sparked an uprising in Brussels, contributing to Belgium's independence from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
• Metternich's observation reflected the influence of France on the political landscape of Europe.

Ans: (d)

Regarding the 1848 Revolution of the Liberals in Europe, the correct facts include:

I. Abdication of the monarch
II. Universal male suffrage had been proclaimed
IV. Freedom of the press has been asked for

Political rights for women (III) were not typically granted during this period. Therefore, the correct options are I, II, and IV.

Ans: (b)
The United Kingdom (UK) is made up of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Poland is not part of the UK, as it is a separate country in Europe. Hence, the correct answer is (b) Poland.

Ans: (a)

Otto Von Bismarck was the key figure in the unification of Germany.

• He played a pivotal role in the process, which culminated in 1871.
• Bismarck is often referred to as the architect of German unification.
• His leadership involved strategic wars with Austria, Denmark, and France.
• These conflicts ultimately led to Prussian victories and the formation of the German Empire.
• In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was declared the German Emperor at Versailles.

Ans: (c)

Giuseppe Mazzini aimed to create a clear plan for a unified Italian Republic during the 1830s. He established a secret society called Young Italy to promote his vision.

• Mazzini believed that Italy should not remain a collection of small states.
• He envisioned a single, unified republic as essential for Italian freedom.
• His ideas inspired similar secret societies across Europe.
• Despite his efforts, revolutionary movements in 1831 and 1848 failed.
• As a result, the task of unifying Italy fell to King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia-Piedmont.

Ans: (b)
In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed the king of united Italy.

Ans: (d)
The new German state placed a strong emphasis on modernizing the currency, banking, legal, and judicial systems.

Ans: (d)

Sardinia-Piedmont was the only Italian state ruled by an Italian princely house during the mid-nineteenth century.

• Italy was divided into seven states at that time.
• The northern regions were under the control of the Austrian Habsburgs.
• The central area was governed by the Pope.
• The southern parts were dominated by the Bourbon kings of Spain.

This division highlighted the political fragmentation of Italy before its unification.

Ans: (b)
Cavour did not belong to a Royal family. He belonged to a family that had served the House of Savoy as soldiers and officials.

Ans: The major outcomes of the French Revolution of 1789 are as follows: 

• It resulted in the transfer of power from King Louis XVI to the National Assembly.
• A collective identity of the people developed.
• The Estate General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
• Jacobin clubs were set up for the propagation of liberal thoughts.
• A new French Flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
• Regional dialects were discouraged and French became the common language of the nation.

Ans: (a)
After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European governments were primarily conservative. The Congress of Vienna, held in 1815, aimed to restore pre-Napoleonic order and reinforce monarchical and aristocratic rule. The conservatives, led by figures like Austria's Prince Metternich, sought to suppress revolutionary ideas, maintain traditional power structures, and resist liberal and nationalist movements. This conservative dominance aimed to prevent the spread of the democratic and nationalist ideals that had emerged during the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars.
Thus, the correct answer is (a) Conservative.

Ans: (a)
Otto von Bismarck, the Prime Minister of Prussia, was the key architect behind the unification of Germany. Through his policies of "blood and iron" and strategic wars (such as the Danish War, Austro-Prussian War, and Franco-Prussian War), Bismarck unified the various German states under Prussian leadership. His diplomatic skills and military strategies played a crucial role in consolidating the German Empire, which was officially declared in 1871 with the proclamation of the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.
Thus, the correct answer is (a) Otto von Bismarck.

Ans: The process of nation state building in Germany took place in the following manner: 
(1) Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle class Germans who tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation state governed by an elected parliament. 
(2) The liberal initiative of nation building was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military. 
(3) Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification. Its Chief Minister, Otto von Bismarck was the architect of this process, which was carried out with the help of the Prussian Army and bureaucracy. 
(4) Three wars for over seven years ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification. 
(5) In January 1871, the Prussian King, William-I, was proclaimed the German emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.

Ans: (a)

The French Revolution of 1789 is regarded as the first clear expression of nationalism. It marked a significant shift in power from the monarchy to the people, establishing the idea that:

• The nation is formed by its citizens.
• People should unite for equality and self-governance.
• The revolution inspired similar movements across Europe.

Therefore, the correct answer is (a) French Revolution.

Ans: The Statue of Liberty is depicted as a female figure holding the Torch of Enlightenment in one hand and the Charter of Rights in the other.

In the foreground, the shattered symbols of absolutist institutions represent the end of oppressive rule.

Sorrieu's vision portrays:

• People from various nations, identifiable by their flags and national costumes.
• The United States and Switzerland leading the procession, symbolising established nation-states.
• A call for unity among nations, with a hopeful outlook for democracy.

Ans: (b)

Metternich remarked, "When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold." This statement followed the July Revolution in France, which ignited uprisings in various parts of Europe.

• The revolution led to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe as its head.
• It also sparked a rebellion in Brussels, contributing to Belgium's independence from the Netherlands.

Ans: Greek War of Independence mobilized the nationalist feelings in Europe in the following ways:
(i) Greece was viewed as a part of Europe that had been annexed by Ottomans and now needed to be liberated.
(ii) Greece was perceived as the foundation and cradle of civilization in Europe by poets and artists and this led to nationalist consciousness.
(iii) Greek nationalists received support from other Greeks living in exile.
(iv) Many Europeans had a natural sympathy for the ancient Greek civilization.
(v) Europeans and Greek nationalists were against the Muslim Empire.

Ans: (b)

Giuseppe Mazzini formed a secret society called Young Italy in 1831. This society aimed to promote the idea of a united and independent Italian republic. Mazzini believed that:

• Italy should be unified and free from foreign control.
• National unity was essential for Italian liberty.
• God intended nations to be the natural units of mankind.

Thus, the correct answer is (b) Giuseppe Mazzini.

Ans: (c)

Otto von Bismarck is regarded as the chief architect of German unification due to his pivotal role in the process. Key points include:

• He led the movement for national unification after the failed liberal initiatives of 1848.
• Bismarck utilised the Prussian army and bureaucracy to achieve his goals.
• He orchestrated three significant wars against Austria, Denmark, and France, which ended in Prussian victories.
• These victories were crucial in consolidating the German states into a unified nation.
• In January 1871, Bismarck's efforts culminated in the proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles.

Ans: Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy in 1861.

Despite this significant event:

• Many Italians were unaware of the concept of a united Italy.
• High illiteracy rates contributed to a lack of understanding of liberal-nationalist ideas.
• Some peasants believed that "Italia" referred to Victor Emmanuel's wife.

Ans: (a)
(a) Otto von Bismarck – Germany: Correct. Otto von Bismarck was the Prussian statesman who played a leading role in the unification of Germany in 1871, making him closely associated with German history.
(b) Napoleon – Spain: Incorrect. Napoleon Bonaparte was the Emperor of France, not Spain. Although he invaded and occupied parts of Spain, he is historically associated with France.
(c) Giuseppe Garibaldi – France: Incorrect. Giuseppe Garibaldi was an Italian nationalist and revolutionary leader who played a key role in the unification of Italy, not France.
(d) Bourbon Kings – Italy: Incorrect. The Bourbon dynasty primarily ruled France and Spain. Although a branch of the Bourbon family did rule the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in southern Italy, they are not associated with Italy as a whole.
Therefore, the correctly matched pair is (a) Otto von Bismarck – Germany.

Ans: The ideas of national unity in the early nineteenth century Europe allied to the ideology of liberalism in various ways: 
(1) With the invention of railway, mobility was stimulated resulting in harnessing economic interest for national unification. 
(2) The concept of government by consent was emphasised by liberals. 
(3) Liberals supported the creation of a unified economic territory. 
(4) Liberals stood for individual freedom and equality of all before law for the new middle class. 
(5) Liberalism stood for the end of autocracy and special privileges.

Ans: The Napoleonic Code was drafted by a commission of four eminent jurists and entered into force in 1804. 

• The Code was a major step in replacing the previous patchwork of feudal laws. It has a special place as it is one of the few documents that have influenced the whole world. 
• The Napoleonic Code was not the first legal code to be established in a European country with a civil legal system; it was preceded by many but it was, however, the first modern legal code to be adopted with a pan-European scope, and it strongly influenced the law of many of the countries formed during and after the Napoleonic Wars. 
• The Napoleonic Code influenced developing countries outside Europe, especially in the Middle East, attempting to modernize their countries through legal reforms.

Ans: After Napoleon's defeat in 1815, many Germans desired an independent Germany. The King of Prussia, Kaiser William I, appointed Chief Minister Bismarck to unify Germany under Prussian rule.

• Bismarck was a determined leader who recognised the urgent need for unification. He began by modernising the army, even defying parliament to collect taxes. This approach became known as the “Blood and Iron” policy, earning him the title of the “Iron Chancellor”.
• He significantly improved the army and encouraged the German populations of Schleswig and Holstein to revolt against Denmark. In 1864, Bismarck allied with Austria to defeat Denmark. Later, he also defeated Austria, leading to the formation of the North German Confederation.
• Through skilled diplomacy, Bismarck managed to keep Italy, Russia, and Napoleon III of France from engaging in war.
• The unification of Germany was completed under Kaiser William I in 1871. Germany then emerged as a leading power in Europe, expanding its colonial empire to enhance its economic interests and global influence.

Ans: Otto von Bismarck is regarded as the architect of a unified Germany due to his strategic leadership and military prowess. Key points include:

• Bismarck utilised the Prussian army and bureaucracy to achieve unification.
• He orchestrated three significant wars over seven years against Austria, Denmark, and France, all of which ended in Prussian victories.
• In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was declared the German Emperor in a ceremony at Versailles, marking the completion of unification.

Ans:
(1) The term ‘liberalism’ is derived from the Latin word liber, meaning free. Thus, for the new middle classes, liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law.

(2)
(a) Political ideas
(i) It emphasized the concept of government by consent.
(ii) Since the French Revolution, liberalism stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution and representative government through Parliament.
(iii) It did not necessarily stand for universal suffrage. Thus in the 19th and 20th centuries, movements were demanding equal political rights.
(b) Social ideas: The liberals supported the abolition of discrimination based on birth.
(c) Economic ideas: It supported the freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital. During the 19th Century, this was a strong demand for the emerging middle classes.

Ans: The dominant power in the nation-building process in Germany was the Prussian State.

Ans: During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent program for a unitary Italian Republic. He formed a secret society called Young Italy.

Ans: The conditions that led to the formation of the British Nation State were:
(a) The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones - such as English, Welsh, Scot, or Irish. All of these ethnic groups had their own cultural and political traditions. But as the English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance, and power, it was able to extend its influence over the other nations of the islands.
(b) The English Parliament, which had seized power from the monarchy in 1688 at the end of a protracted conflict, was the instrument through which a nation-state, with England at its centre, came to be forged.
(c) The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ meant, in effect, that England was able to impose its influence on Scotland. The British parliament was henceforth dominated by its English members.

Ans: Liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law. Politically, it emphasized the concept of government by consent.
(a) Derived from’ liber’ means free.
(b) Stood for freedom for all and equality for all before the law.
(c) Politically -Government by consent.
(d) Universal suffrage, the right to vote for all.
(e) The French Revolution stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution, and a representative government through parliament.
(f) Struggles for equal political rights.
(g) It stressed on inviolability of private property.
(h) Freedom of markets and abolition of state restrictions.

Ans: Economic hardships faced by Europe in the 1830s :
(a) There was an enormous increase in population all over Europe. In most countries, there were more seekers of jobs than employment.
(b) Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.
(c) Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine-made goods from England.
(d) In those regions of Europe where the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.
(e) The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in towns and countries.

Ans: The Balkans, which include modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, and Montenegro, experienced significant turmoil in the early 19th century due to various factors:

• The disintegration of the Ottoman Empire and the rise of romantic nationalism created a volatile environment.
• European nationalities began to break free from Ottoman control, seeking independence.
• Balkan revolutionaries aimed to reclaim their long-lost independence.
• Intense rivalry existed among Balkan states, each wanting to expand their territory at the expense of others.
• Major European powers, including Russia, Germany, England, and Austro-Hungary, competed for influence in the region.

These tensions ultimately contributed to the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.

Ans: Frederic Sorrieu was an artist from France.

Ans: Frédéric Sorrieu created a series of prints in 1848 to illustrate his vision of a world composed of democratic and socialist republics. His prints aimed to:

• Show the peoples of the world as distinct nations.
• Highlight their identities through flags and national costumes.
• Pay homage to the Statue of Liberty, symbolising freedom and enlightenment.

In this way, Sorrieu expressed his hope for a united and peaceful world.

Ans: The French revolutionaries implemented several measures to foster a sense of collective identity among the French people:

• The concepts of la Patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) were introduced, promoting unity and equal rights.
• A new national flag, the tricolour, replaced the royal standard.
• The Estates-General was renamed the National Assembly, representing the active citizens.
• New hymns were composed, oaths were taken, and martyrs were commemorated in the name of the nation.
• A centralised administrative system was established, creating uniform laws for all citizens.
• Internal customs duties were abolished, facilitating trade.
• A uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
• The French language, as spoken in Paris, became the common language, discouraging regional dialects.
• The revolutionaries aimed to liberate other European peoples from despotism, promoting the idea of nationhood.

These steps not only unified the French people but also inspired movements across Europe.

Ans: The main clauses of the Treaty of Vienna signed in 1815 were: Vienna Congress: The Congress was hosted by the Austrian Chancellor “Duke Metternich”.
(a) The Bourbon dynasty which had been deposed during the French Revolution was restored to power.
(b) France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.
(c) A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French extension in the future.
(d) Kingdom of the Netherlands including Belgium was set up.
(e) Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers.

Ans: German Unification
(a) After 1848, nationalism in Europe moved away from its association with democracy and revolution.
(b) Nationalist sentiments were often mobilized by conservatives for promoting state power and achieving political domination over Europe.
(c) Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans in the 19th Century.
(d) In 1848 they tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament.
(e) This liberal initiative to nation-building was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia.
(f) Prussia took on the leadership of Otto von Bismarck, who became the architect of this process.
(g) Three wars over seven years - with Austria, Denmark, and France - ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification.
(h) On 18 January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was declared the German Emperor in a ceremony at Versailles.

Ans: The main aim of the revolutionaries in Europe after 1815 was to:

• Oppose monarchial governments established after the Vienna Congress.
• Promote the idea of a united community with equal rights.
• Advocate for a constitution that guarantees freedom and liberty.

Ans: The main aim of the Treaty of Vienna (1815) was to:

• Reverse changes made in Europe during the Napoleonic Wars.
• Restore monarchies that had been overthrown.
• Establish a new conservative order to prevent future conflicts.

Key outcomes included:

• The restoration of the Bourbon dynasty in France.
• France lost territories gained under Napoleon.
• Creation of buffer states around France to limit its expansion.
• New territories were allocated to Prussia and Austria.

Ans: The strong demand of the emerging middle classes in Europe during the nineteenth century was for:

• Freedom of the markets
• Abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods

This reflected their desire for a more open and competitive economic environment.

Ans: Kaiser William I of Prussia was proclaimed the German Emperor during a ceremony on 18 January 1871.

• The event took place in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles.
• It involved princes from various German states and key military representatives.
• This proclamation marked the establishment of the German Empire.
• The ceremony highlighted the dominance of Prussian state power in the unification of Germany.

Ans: The strong demand from the emerging middle classes in Europe during the nineteenth century focused on:

• The freedom of markets.
• The abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods.
• The free movement of capital.

These demands were crucial for fostering economic growth and promoting trade.

Ans: The objective of the Treaty of Vienna in 1815 was to:

• Reverse changes from the Napoleonic Wars.
• Restore the Bourbon dynasty, which had been removed during the French Revolution.
• Limit French expansion by establishing new states around France.
• Reinstate conservative monarchies across Europe.

This treaty aimed to create a new conservative order, ensuring stability and preventing future revolutions.

Ans: The term liberalism is derived from the Latin word liber meaning free. Thus for the new middle classes, liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law. Politically, it emphasized the concept of government by consent.

Ans: Metternich remarked, “When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches a cold”.

Ans: The main aim of the revolutionaries in Europe after 1815 was to:

• Oppose monarchical forms of government.
• Promote liberty and freedom for individuals.
• Establish nation-states as part of their struggle.

Ans: Treaty of 1832: Constantinople Treaty.

Ans: Event that mobilized nationalist feelings: The Greek War of Independence.

This conflict, which began in 1821, was significant for several reasons:

• Greece had been under the control of the Ottoman Empire since the 15th century.
• The rise of revolutionary nationalism in Europe inspired the Greek struggle for independence.
• Support came from Greeks in exile and many Western Europeans who admired ancient Greek culture.
• Prominent figures, such as the English poet Lord Byron, raised funds and fought in the war, ultimately dying in 1824.
• The conflict concluded with the Treaty of Constantinople in 1832, recognising Greece as an independent nation.

Ans: Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of United Italy in 1861.

Key points:

• He became king after the unification of various Italian states.
• This unification was largely influenced by the efforts of leaders like Cavour and Garibaldi.
• Despite this achievement, many Italians were unaware of the concept of a unified Italy.

Ans: Allegory: An allegory is a way of expressing an abstract idea through a person or object. It conveys deeper meanings beyond the literal interpretation.

Examples:

• The Statue of Liberty represents freedom.
• Marianne symbolises the French Republic.
• Germania embodies the German nation.

Ans: Metternich remarked, "When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches a cold." This statement highlights the significant influence of France on European affairs.

Ans: Kaiser William I of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor during a ceremony held at the Palace of Versailles on 18 January 1871.

Key points about the event:

• The ceremony took place in the Hall of Mirrors, attended by princes of German states and military representatives.
• This event marked the establishment of the new German Empire, highlighting Prussian dominance in the nation-building process.
• Otto von Bismarck, the chief minister of Prussia, played a crucial role in orchestrating this unification.

Ans: Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation; art and poetry, stories and music. They all helped express and shape nationalist feelings.
(a) Romantic artists and poets created a sense of shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation.
(b) It was through folk songs, folk poetry, and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation was popularised.
(c) Emphasis was given to the vernacular language and the collection of folklore to carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences.

Ans: The female figures became a powerful allegory of the nation during the nineteenth century in Europe. This transformation can be understood through the following points:

• Representation: Artists depicted nations as female figures, allowing a country to be visualised as a person.
• Symbolism: The female figure did not represent any specific woman but embodied the abstract idea of the nation.
• Concrete Form: This personification provided a tangible representation of the nation.
• Historical Context: During the French Revolution, artists used female allegories to express concepts like Liberty, Justice, and the Republic.

For instance, in France, the female figure known as Marianne symbolised the nation, drawing characteristics from Liberty and the Republic, such as the red cap and tricolour. Statues of Marianne were placed in public spaces to remind citizens of their national identity.

Ans: Culture played a vital role in the development of nationalism in Europe during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. 
Here are some key points:

• Expression of Nationalism: Art, poetry, stories, and music helped to express and shape nationalist feelings.
• Shared Heritage: The focus was on creating a sense of a shared cultural past as the foundation of a nation.
• Critique of Rationalism: Many artists and thinkers criticised the overemphasis on reason and science.
• Folk Culture: German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder promoted the spirit of the nation through folk songs, poetry, and dance.

Ans: The 1830s were the years of great economic hardship in Europe due to the following reasons;
(a) There was an enormous increase in population all over Europe.
(b) There were more seekers of jobs than employment.
(c) People migrated from rural areas to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.
(d) There was stiff competition between the products of small producers and machine-made products imported from England.
(e) Peasants’ condition was bad due to the burden of feudal dues and obligations.
(f) The prices of food had risen due to a bad harvest. This resulted in widespread pauperism in town and country.

Ans: Measures and practices introduced by the French revolutionaries for collective identity:
(a) The ideas of la Patrie and le citoyen are emphasized.
(b) A new French flag, the tri-color was chosen.
(c) The Estate General was elected by the active citizens.
(d) The elected body of active citizens renamed as National Assembly.
(e) New hymns were composed.
(f) Oaths were taken
(g) Martyrs commemorated.
(h) A centralized administrative system was implemented.
(i) Formulated uniform laws.
(j) A uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
(k) French became the common language of the nation.

Ans: Napoleon had destroyed democracy in France but in the administrative field, he had incorporated revolutionary principles to make the whole system more rational and efficient.
(a) All privileges based on birth were removed.
(b) He had established equality before the law.
(c) Right to property was given.
(d) Simplified administrative divisions were made.
(e) The feudal system was abolished and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
(f) Guild restrictions were removed.
(g) Transport and communication systems were improved.

Ans: Nationalism in Europe- The Balkans:
(a) During this period, nationalist groups become increasingly intolerant of each other.
(b) Manipulations of the nationalist aspirations were there.
(c) The Balkan was under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
(d) Ideas of romantic nationalism spread in the Balkan.
(e) They claimed independence or political rights on nationality and used history to prove that they had once been independent but had subsequently been subjugated by foreign domination.
(f) Russia, Germany, England, Austria-hungry were keen on countering the hold of other powers over the Balkans.
(g) This led to a series of wars in the region and finally the First World War.