Class 9 History Chapter 2 Notes - Socialism In Europe and The Russian Revolution

The Age of Social Change

• After the French Revolution, there was a shift in societal structures, prompting global discussions about individual rights and social power.
• In India, figures like Raja Rammohan Roy and Derozio drew inspiration from the French Revolution and engaged in conversations about societal change.
• In Europe, the response to these societal changes varied from gradual adaptations to radical shifts, leading to classifications of people as conservatives, liberals, or radicals.
• These political labels had different meanings based on the context and time, influencing the political traditions of the nineteenth century.
• The Russian Revolution played a pivotal role in bringing socialism to the forefront, affecting various aspects of twentieth-century society.

Socialism in the Russian Revolution

Liberals, Radicals, and Conservatives

Liberals:

• Liberals aimed for societal changes.
• They promoted religious tolerance within nations.
• They opposed the unchecked power of royal rulers.
• They sought to protect individual rights from government interference.
• They advocated for a parliamentary government elected by the public.
• They supported laws being interpreted by an independent judiciary.
• Liberals did not endorse universal voting rights, believing that only property-owning men should have the right to vote.
• They were also against women's right to vote.

Radicals:

• Radicals advocated for a government based on the majority's will.
• They supported women’s suffrage movements.
• They opposed the privileges of wealthy landowners and factory owners.
• They were against the concentration of property among a few individuals.

Conservatives:

• Conservatives were initially against both radicals and liberals.
• However, they accepted that some change was necessary after the French Revolution.
• They believed in gradual change while valuing tradition.

Societal Change Clashes:

• Diverse ideas on societal change clashed post the French Revolution.
• Nineteenth-century revolutions defined the limits and potential of political tendencies.

Industrial Society and Social Change

• The period marked by significant social and economic transformations indicates the onset of a new era.
• Notable developments during this time include the emergence of new cities, industrial regions, the expansion of railway networks, and the beginning of the Industrial Revolution .
• Industrialisation prompted the migration of men, women, and children to factories, where they endured long working hours, meager wages, and high levels of unemployment.
• The swift urban expansion brought forth challenges such as inadequate housing and poor sanitation .
• In response to these social issues, liberals and radicals, many of whom were industrialists and capitalists, sought solutions.
• They advocated for the promotion of individual effort, labour, and enterprise as means to enhance society.
• Their agenda included the freedom of individuals, improved labour conditions for the underprivileged, and unrestricted operations for those with capital.
• Support for revolutionary changes was garnered from nationalists, liberals, and radicals aiming to reform the existing European governments post-1815.
• One notable figure, Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian nationalist, advocated for revolutionary changes in Italy, inspiring nationalists globally, including those in India.

The Coming of Socialism to Europe

• Definition: Socialism emerged as a prominent ideology in mid-nineteenth-century Europe, advocating for a societal structure where collective ownership replaced private property.
• Rationale: Socialists viewed private property as the source of societal issues, highlighting that individual property owners prioritized personal profit over the welfare of the community.
• Objective: Socialists aimed to shift control of property from individuals to society as a whole to promote collective social interests.

Vision of Socialist Society:

• Cooperatives: Different socialist thinkers had various ideas about what a socialist community would look like. For instance, Robert Owen advocated for cooperative societies, such as New Harmony in Indiana.
• Role of Government: Socialists like Louis Blanc in France believed that governments should promote and support cooperatives as alternatives to capitalist businesses.
• Marxist View: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels provided additional perspectives, arguing that industrial society was predominantly capitalist, with workers generating profits for private owners.

Communist Society:

• Marxist Principles: Marx and Engels articulated their vision of a communist society in the  Communist Manifesto, advocating for shared ownership of all property to free workers from capitalist exploitation.
• Overthrowing Capitalism: Marx believed that workers needed to dismantle capitalism to create a socialist society that abolishes private property.
• Future Society: He saw communism as the inevitable next phase of societal evolution, where workers would ultimately triumph over capitalists.

Support for Socialism

• By the 1870s, socialist ideas were gaining popularity in Europe.
• Socialists organized the Second International to coordinate their efforts.
• Workers in England and Germany started forming groups to advocate for better living and working conditions.
• These groups established funds to support members in difficult times and campaigned for shorter working hours and voting rights.
• In Germany, these associations collaborated closely with the Social Democratic Party (SPD), assisting it in gaining seats in parliament.
• By 1905, a Labour Party emerged in Britain and a Socialist Party in France, comprised of socialists and trade unionists.
• Although they influenced legislation through key parliamentary figures, socialists did not achieve government power in most European countries until after 1914.
• Despite their impact on laws, conservative, liberal, and radical groups remained in control across Europe.

The Russian Revolution

• In Russia, the Bolsheviks, a socialist faction, seized power during the October Revolution of 1917, in a country grappling with severe social and economic challenges.
• The overthrow of the monarchy in February 1917 and the subsequent events of October are collectively referred to as the Russian Revolution.

The Russian Empire in 1914

• Tsar Nicholas II ruled the Russian Empire in 1914. The Empire included present-day Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, parts of Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, and regions extending to the Pacific, such as the Baltic states and parts of Central Asia, including Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan.
• The dominant religion in the Russian Empire was Russian Orthodox Christianity, which originated from the Greek Orthodox Church. The empire also had followers of Catholicism, Protestantism, Islam, and Buddhism.

Economy and Society

• In the early 20th century, around 85% of Russia's population were farmers, which is higher than in many European countries. They depended on agriculture for their income.
• Russia was a leading exporter of grain, with industrialisation mainly occurring in the western parts of the country, including cities like St. Petersburg and Moscow, where there were many factories and craft workshops.
• The 1890s saw a rise in the number of factories due to improved railway networks and increased foreign investments, leading to a boost in coal, iron, and steel production.
• By the early 1900s, the number of factory workers and craftsmen was almost equal, with most industries being privately owned. However, the government regulated these industries to ensure minimum wages and limit working hours.
• Workers were divided by their skills and backgrounds, resulting in varying working conditions and living standards. Women were an important part of the workforce but earned less than men.
• Despite their differences, workers united in strikes to protest against job losses or poor working conditions, particularly in the textile industry in 1896-1897 and the metal industry in 1902.
• In rural areas, most land was farmed by peasants, while large estates were owned by the nobility, the crown, and the Orthodox Church. Peasants, like workers, were internally divided and often showed their discontent towards the nobility by refusing to pay rent and engaging in conflicts with landlords.
• Russian peasants were distinct from their European counterparts in that they sometimes pooled land resources and shared them among families based on communal needs.
• The state played a role in regulating labour conditions, and the 1905 Revolution was significant in addressing workers' rights during this period.

Socialism in Russia

• Early Political Climate: Before 1914, political parties in Russia had to operate in secret or faced severe restrictions under the Tsarist regime.
• Formation of the Party: The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was established in 1898 by socialists inspired by Marx's ideas. Due to government crackdowns, their activities were covert.
• Activities Despite Repression: The party managed to publish a newspaper, organize workers, and coordinate strikes despite the oppressive environment.
• Peasant Socialism: Some Russian socialists believed that the tradition of land redistribution among peasants inherently inclined them towards socialism. This perspective suggested that peasants, rather than workers, would spearhead the revolution, potentially accelerating Russia's shift to socialism compared to other nations.
• Rise of Rural Activism: In the late 19th century, socialists became increasingly active in rural areas, leading to the formation of the Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1900.
• Goals of the Socialist Revolutionary Party: This party advocated for peasant rights and the transfer of land from nobles to peasants.
• Lenin's Perspective on Peasants: Unlike the Socialist Revolutionaries, Lenin and the Social Democrats argued that peasants were not a homogeneous group. He observed that there were distinctions among peasants, with some being poor laborers and others wealthy landowners who employed workers.
• Impact of Peasant Differentiation: Lenin believed that this internal differentiation among peasants prevented them from forming a united socialist movement.
• Internal Divisions in the Party: The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party faced internal divisions regarding its organizational strategy.
• Lenin's Vision: Lenin, leading the Bolshevik faction, advocated for a disciplined and controlled party structure, which he deemed necessary for operating under the repressive Tsarist regime.
• Menshevik Approach: In contrast, the Mensheviks proposed a more open party structure, similar to that in Germany, which would allow for a broader membership base.

A Turbulent Time: The 1905 Revolution

• In 1905, Russia was under the rule of an autocratic Tsar who did not have to answer to any parliament, setting him apart from other European monarchs.
• During the 1905 revolution, a coalition of Liberals, Social Democrats, Socialist Revolutionaries, peasants, workers, nationalists, and Muslim reformers came together to demand a constitution.
• The year 1904 was marked by a severe economic crisis in Russia, characterized by a sharp increase in the prices of essential goods, which led to a 20% decline in the real wages of workers.
• Growing discontent among workers prompted more than 110,000 workers in St. Petersburg to strike for shorter hours, higher pay, and improved working conditions, particularly after the dismissal of four Assembly members.
• A peaceful march to the Winter Palace, known as Bloody Sunday, took a tragic turn when police and Cossacks attacked the protesters, resulting in over 100 deaths and around 300 injuries.
• The violence of Bloody Sunday acted as a catalyst for the 1905 Revolution, which saw strikes erupt across the nation, university closures due to student protests advocating for civil rights, and the establishment of the Union of Unions by middle-class professionals demanding a constituent assembly.
• In the aftermath of the revolution, the Tsar grudgingly permitted the formation of an elected consultative Parliament, known as the Duma. This period also witnessed the emergence of numerous trade unions and factory committees to represent workers, although many of these were unofficial due to legal restrictions.
• However, the Tsar quickly dismissed the first and second Dumas, altered voting laws, and filled the third Duma with conservative members to consolidate his power and counter the influence of liberals and revolutionaries.

The First World War and the Russian Empire

• 1914 Conflict: In 1914, a war broke out in Europe between two groups: the Central Powers, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire, and the Allies, consisting of France, Britain, and Russia. This conflict expanded beyond Europe due to the global empires of the countries involved.
• Initial Support in Russia: At the beginning of the war, there was strong support for the conflict in Russia under Tsar Nicholas II. However, this support weakened when the Tsar ignored the Duma, the Russian parliament.
• Growing Anti-German Sentiment: Anti-German feelings in Russia increased, exemplified by the renaming of St. Petersburg to Petrograd. This change was meant to demonstrate Russian pride during the war.
• Unpopularity of the Autocracy: The autocratic rule in Russia became more unpopular due to Tsarina Alexandra's German heritage and the controversial influence of Rasputin, a mystic and advisor to the royal family.
• Eastern and Western Fronts: The strategies and outcomes on the Eastern and Western fronts of the war were different, impacting the course of the conflict.
• Russian Casualties: By 1917, Russia suffered immense losses in battles against Germany and Austria, with over 7 million casualties. This included soldiers killed, wounded, or missing.
• Retreat and Destruction: As Russian forces retreated from the front lines, they often destroyed resources to prevent them from falling into enemy hands. This led to a humanitarian crisis with over 3 million refugees and further damaged the government's reputation.
• Impact on Industry: The war had a severe impact on Russian industry. There were shortages of essential materials, disrupted railway lines, and a lack of labor, all of which hindered production.
• Shortages in Cities: By the winter of 1916, cities in Russia faced critical shortages of basic goods, including bread and flour. These shortages sparked widespread riots and discontent among the population.

The February Revolution in Petrograd

• In the winter of 1917, Petrograd (now St. Petersburg) was marked by clear social divisions in its layout, with distinct areas for workers and the elite.
• The city faced severe food shortages and harsh cold weather in February 1917, exacerbating social tensions and prompting strikes among workers and political unrest.
• Workers initiated strikes, particularly on International Women's Day, and began to organize themselves without direct involvement from political parties.
• After violent clashes between demonstrators and government forces, soldiers and workers came together to form the Petrograd Soviet, which played a crucial role in the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II on March 2, 1917.
• A Provisional Government, primarily composed of leaders from the Duma (the Russian parliament), was established to govern Russia until a Constituent Assembly could be elected.
• The February Revolution of 1917, centered in Petrograd, resulted in the overthrow of the monarchy.

After February

• In the Provisional Government, Army officials, landowners, and industrialists held power, while liberals and socialists advocated for an elected government.
• The Provisional Government lifted restrictions on public meetings and associations, leading to the emergence of 'workers' councils' such as the Petrograd Soviet in various regions, although there was no standardized election process for these councils.

April 1917:

• Vladimir Lenin, the leader of the Bolshevik Party, returned to Russia and called for power to be transferred to the Soviets. In his 'April Theses,' he advocated for an end to the war, land redistribution to peasants, and the nationalization of banks.
• Lenin also proposed changing the name of the Bolshevik Party to the Communist Party to reflect its new radical objectives, a suggestion that initially surprised many party members.

Summer Developments:

• Worker movements gained momentum with the formation of factory committees and the strengthening of trade unions that challenged existing industrial practices.
• Soldiers’ committees began to form within the army, leading to the All Russian Congress of Soviets, a significant event in June 1917 where around 500 representatives from various Soviets convened to discuss the future governance of Russia.
• As the Provisional Government faced a decline in power and an increase in Bolshevik influence, it responded by cracking down on dissent, resulting in arrests and the suppression of protests during the July Days in July 1917.

Rural Unrest:

• In the countryside, peasants and leaders from the Socialist Revolutionary Party demanded land redistribution and established land committees to facilitate the process.
• Encouraged by the Socialist Revolutionaries, peasants began seizing land between July and September 1917.

The Revolution of October 1917

• Tensions escalated between the Provisional Government and the Bolsheviks, with Lenin concerned about the former establishing a dictatorship.
• In September, Lenin initiated talks for an uprising against the government, seeking support from Bolsheviks within the army, soviets, and factories.
• On October 16, 1917, Lenin convinced the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party to endorse a Bolshevik takeover in the name of socialism. The Military Revolutionary Committee, led by Leon Trotsky, was tasked with organizing the uprising, and the date was kept secret.
• The uprising commenced on October 24 when Prime Minister Kerensky left Petrograd to gather troops. Pro-government military forces targeted Bolshevik newspapers and key locations, but they faced strong resistance from supporters of the Military Revolutionary Committee, who gradually gained control of the city.
• The cruiser Aurora bombarded the Winter Palace, leading to the surrender of the ministers and the takeover of the city by the committee.
• The Bolshevik-led revolution was approved by the majority at the All Russian Congress of Soviets in Petrograd, triggering uprisings in other cities. Despite fierce fighting, the Bolsheviks managed to secure control of the Moscow-Petrograd region by December.

What Changed after October?

• End of Private Ownership: The Bolsheviks opposed private ownership and took control of major industries and banks in November 1917. The government took charge of ownership and management.
• Land Reforms: Land was declared social property, allowing peasants to seize land owned by nobles.
• Urban Changes: In cities, the Bolsheviks divided large houses according to family needs and abolished old noble titles.
• Military and Official Attire: New uniforms for the army and officials were introduced following a clothing competition in 1918.

Renaming and Political Changes

• Party Renaming: The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik).
• Constituent Assembly Elections: Elections for the Constituent Assembly in November 1917 did not show strong support for the Bolsheviks.
• Dissolution of the Assembly: In January 1918, the Assembly rejected Bolshevik proposals, leading Lenin to dissolve it.
• Preference for Congress: Lenin favored the All Russian Congress of Soviets for its democratic image.
• Treaty with Germany: In March 1918, despite opposition, the Bolsheviks signed a peace treaty with Germany at Brest Litovsk.
• One-Party Rule: The Bolsheviks became the only party allowed to participate in elections for the All Russian Congress of Soviets, effectively making it the country’s Parliament. Russia became a one-party state with trade unions under party control.
• Secret Police: The Cheka, later known as the OGPU and NKVD, targeted opponents of the Bolsheviks.

Cultural Impact

• Support from Young Creatives: Many young writers and artists supported the Party because of its socialist ideals and promises of change.
• Rise in Innovation: There was a surge in artistic and architectural innovation after 1917.
• Discontent with Censorship: Some individuals were disappointed by the Party’s censorship.

The Civil War

• After the Bolsheviks began redistributing land, the Russian army disintegrated as many peasant soldiers left to participate in the land redistribution, leading to widespread disorder.
• Opposition to the Bolshevik uprising came from non-Bolshevik socialists, liberals, and supporters of autocracy who formed groups in southern Russia to fight against the Bolsheviks (known as the 'reds').
• Between 1918 and 1919, the 'greens' (mainly peasant groups) and 'whites' (pro-Tsarists) controlled most of the Russian empire, with help from troops from France, America, Britain, and Japan, worried about the rise of socialism in Russia.
• During the civil war between these factions and the Bolsheviks, the land suffered from widespread looting, banditry, and famine.
• The 'whites', who were in favour of private property, took harsh actions against peasants who had taken land, which hurt their support and led to their downfall.
• By January 1920, the Bolsheviks had taken control of most of the former Russian empire, aided by various groups.
• Conflicts occurred in places like Khiva, Central Asia, when Russian colonists adopted Bolshevik ideas, resulting in violent massacres of local nationalists in the name of protecting socialism.
• To clarify their position, the Bolshevik government gave political autonomy to most non-Russian nationalities within the Soviet Union (USSR), formed in December 1922 from the remnants of the Russian empire.
• Despite attempts to win over different nationalities, including unpopular policies like discouraging nomadism, the Bolsheviks' efforts at creating unity were only somewhat successful.

Making a Socialist Society

• The Bolsheviks took control of industries and banks.
• Peasants were permitted to farm state-owned land.
• The Bolsheviks used seized land to showcase collective farming.

Introduction of centralised planning:

• Officials evaluated the economy and set goals for five-year periods.
• Based on these assessments, Five Year Plans were formulated.
• During the first two Plans (1927-1932 and 1933-1938), the government set prices to stimulate industrial growth.

Impact of centralised planning:

• There was significant economic growth, with industrial output increasing notably, including a 100% rise in oil, coal, and steel production from 1929 to 1933.
• New factory cities were established.

Challenges faced due to rapid construction:

• Rapid construction resulted in poor working conditions.
• For instance, the quick development of the Magnitogorsk steel plant over three years led to harsh living conditions and frequent work interruptions.
• Workers faced difficulties, including extreme cold temperatures.

Developments in social welfare:

• The education system was expanded, enabling factory workers and peasants to attend universities.
• Crèches were set up in factories for the children of workers.
• Affordable public healthcare was made available.
• Model housing was provided for workers.

Stalinism and Collectivisation

Background:

• The early planned economy faced challenges due to the rapid implementation of collectivisation policies.
• By the late 1920s, there were evident crises in grain procurement in Soviet towns.

Stalin's Actions:

• In response to the crisis, Stalin implemented emergency measures such as requisitioning grain and other resources.
• He believed that wealthy peasants and traders were hoarding grain, exacerbating the situation.
• Stalin ordered strict enforcement of grain collections and targeted 'kulaks,' or wealthy peasants, as part of these measures.

Collectivisation:

• Collectivisation officially began in 1929, forcing all peasants into collective farming, known as kolkhoz.
• Land and farming tools were transferred to these collective farms.
• However, peasant resistance led to the destruction of livestock and worsened famine conditions.

Consequences:

• Those who resisted collectivisation faced severe consequences.
• Initially, production did not improve, and a famine occurred from 1930 to 1933.
• Critics of the regime were accused of conspiracy against socialism, leading to mass incarcerations.
• Many innocent people were falsely accused, tortured, and executed during this period.

The Global Influence of the Russian Revolution and the USSR

• Criticism from European Socialist Parties: Many socialist parties in Europe were critical of how the Bolsheviks took and maintained power, despite a global interest in the concept of a workers' state.
• Formation of Communist Parties: The Bolshevik Revolution led to the establishment of communist parties in various countries, including the Communist Party of Great Britain.
• Sharing the Bolshevik Model: The Bolsheviks shared their model with colonial peoples, inviting participants from outside the USSR to events like the Eastern Peoples' Congress and the Comintern.
• Education at the Communist University: Individuals from outside Russia received education at the USSR's Communist University of the Workers of the East, which significantly influenced socialist movements.
• Straying from Original Goals: By the 1950s, it became evident within the USSR and the broader socialist movement that the Soviet government had deviated from the original objectives of the Russian Revolution.
• Soviet Progress and Limitations: Although the USSR made significant strides in industry and agriculture, it restricted essential freedoms, which diminished its global standing in socialism by the late 20th century.
• Enduring Respect for Socialist Ideals: Despite its decline, socialist ideals remained respected among the Soviet people, leading to a re-evaluation of these ideas worldwide.