NCERT Exemplar: Reproductive Health - 2 | Biology Class 12 - NEET PDF Download

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Suggest some important steps that you would recommend to be taken to improve the reproductive health standards in India.
Ans.  To improve reproductive health standards in India, the following steps should be taken:

• Creating awareness among people about various reproduction-related aspects through audio-visual and print media to remove myths and misconceptions related to sex and reproduction.

• Introduction of sex education in schools to provide correct information about reproductive organs, adolescence and associated changes, safe and hygienic sexual practices, and prevention of sexually transmitted infections including AIDS.

• Providing proper medical assistance and care for problems related to pregnancy, delivery, medical termination of pregnancy, contraception, infertility, menstrual disorders and sexually transmitted diseases.

• Educating people, especially those in the marriageable age group, about available birth-control methods and encouraging small family norms.

• Improving maternal and child health care services, including antenatal and post-natal care, to reduce maternal and infant mortality rates.

• Implementing and strengthening Reproductive and Child Health Care (RCH) programmes with adequate infrastructural facilities, professional expertise and material support.

• Enforcing legal measures to prevent misuse of techniques like amniocentesis for sex determination and to check female foeticide.

Q.2. The procedure of GIFT involves the transfer of female gamete to the fallopian tube. Can gametes be transferred to the uterus to achieve the same result? Explain.
Ans. The fallopian tube provides the normal site and environment for fertilisation. In the GIFT (Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer) procedure, an ovum and sperm are placed in the fallopian tube so fertilisation can occur there. The uterine cavity is not a suitable site for survival of an unfertilised ovum; oocytes placed directly in the uterus are likely to degenerate or be removed by local immune cells and would not normally be fertilised there. Therefore, to achieve fertilisation by transferring gametes, placement in the fallopian tube is used rather than in the uterus. (Note: intrauterine procedures such as intrauterine insemination introduce sperm into the uterus - they do not place the oocyte there for fertilisation.)

Q.3. Copper ions-releasing IUDs are more efficient than non-medicated methods. Why?
Ans. Copper-releasing intrauterine devices release Cu²⁺ ions which suppress sperm motility and fertilising capacity. These IUDs also increase phagocytosis of sperms within the uterus. Due to these effects, copper-releasing IUDs are more effective than non-medicated methods of contraception.

Q.4. What are the probable factors that contributed to population explosion in India?
Ans.

1. A rapid decline in the death rate due to improvements in public health, sanitation and medical care.
2. A decline in maternal mortality rate (MMR) leading to more women surviving childbirth.
3. A decline in infant mortality rate (IMR) through immunisation, better neonatal care and nutrition.
4. An increase in the number of people in the reproductive (fertile) age group, leading to higher birth rates in absolute terms.

Q.5. Briefly explain IVF and ET What are the conditions in which these methods are advised?
Ans. In vitro fertilisation (IVF) is a technique in which ova and sperms collected from the female and male partners (or donors) are fertilised outside the body under laboratory conditions. The zygote or early embryo formed is then transferred into the female reproductive tract, a procedure called embryo transfer (ET).

Zygotes or early embryos up to the 8-cell stage are transferred into the fallopian tube (ZIFT), while embryos with more than 8 blastomeres are transferred into the uterus for further development.

IVF-ET is advised in cases of infertility such as blockage or damage of fallopian tubes, very low sperm count or inability of the male partner to inseminate the female, and when natural fertilisation is not possible.

Q.6. What are the advantages of natural methods of contraception over artificial methods?
Ans.

1. They do not involve medicines or devices, so side effects are minimal or absent.
2. There is no surgical intervention involved, so the methods are easily reversible and do not require clinical procedures.
3. They are economical and culturally acceptable to some couples.
4. However, it should be noted that many natural methods tend to be less reliable than modern artificial methods and require discipline and correct practise.

Q.7. What are the conditions in which medical termination of pregnancy is advised?
Ans.

• Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) is used to terminate unwanted pregnancies resulting from unprotected intercourse, contraceptive failure or sexual assault.
• MTP is advised when continuation of pregnancy poses a significant risk to the physical or mental health of the mother, or when there are serious foetal abnormalities incompatible with life.
• MTP is generally safer in the first trimester; later terminations carry greater risk and require specialist care and legal oversight.

Q.8. Comment on the essential features required for an ideal contraceptive.
Ans.

1. User-friendly: easy to use and acceptable to users.
2. Easily available and affordable.
3. Highly effective in preventing pregnancy.
4. Reversible when the couple desires pregnancy.
5. Minimal or no side-effects.
6. Should not interfere with sexual desire, performance or the experience of the sexual act.

Q.9. All reproductive tract infections RTIs are STDs, but all STDs are not RTIs. Justify with example.
Ans. Many sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) such as gonorrhoea, syphilis, genital herpes, chlamydiasis and genital warts are infections of the reproductive tract and so are RTIs. However, some infections that can be transmitted sexually are not primarily infections of the reproductive organs. For example, Hepatitis-B and HIV (AIDS) can be transmitted by sexual contact, but they affect the liver and the immune system respectively and are not limited to the reproductive tract. Thus, while most RTIs are STDs, not every STD is restricted to the reproductive tract.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. What are the Assisted Reproductive Techniques practised to help infertile couples? Describe any three techniques.
Ans. Infertility is defined as the inability of a couple to conceive after two years of regular unprotected sexual cohabitation. Assisted reproductive techniques (ART) are medical procedures used to help infertile couples to achieve pregnancy when natural conception or simpler treatments have failed. Important ARTs include:

1. In vitro fertilisation (IVF) followed by Embryo Transfer (ET) - the "Test-tube baby" programme

Ovarian stimulation is used to produce multiple mature oocytes, which are collected from the female. Sperms are obtained from the male partner or a donor. Fertilisation takes place in laboratory dishes under controlled conditions. The resulting zygotes or embryos are cultured for a short period and then transferred back to the female reproductive tract at an appropriate stage.

• ZIFT (Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer): early zygotes or embryos (about up to 8 blastomeres) are placed into the fallopian tube so that development continues in the natural tubal/uterine environment.
• IUT / Embryo Transfer to uterus: embryos of more than about 8 cells are transferred into the uterine cavity to implant and develop further.
• Embryos formed by in-vivo fertilisation in a donor woman can also be collected and transferred to the recipient woman in some cases.

2. GIFT (Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer)

An ovum collected from a donor or from the wife is placed together with capacitated sperm into the fallopian tube of the recipient female. Fertilisation occurs inside the fallopian tube in this method. GIFT is suitable when the uterus and fallopian tube environment of the recipient are capable of supporting fertilisation and early development but fertilisation within the couple is not taking place.

3. AI (Artificial Insemination)

Artificial insemination is used when the male partner has difficulty in depositing semen or the semen has low sperm count or poor motility. Semen from the husband or a healthy donor is collected, processed if necessary (to concentrate motile sperm and remove seminal plasma), and introduced artificially into the female reproductive tract - into the vagina or directly into the uterus (IUI - Intra Uterine Insemination) - to improve chances of fertilisation.

These ART techniques are used according to the couple's specific problems, and counselling is necessary about success rates, risks, ethical and legal aspects, and the possibility of using donor gametes or surrogates where needed.

Q.2. Discuss the mode of action and advantages/disadvantages of hormonal contraceptives.
Ans. Hormonal contraceptives include oral pills containing progestogens alone or in combination with oestrogen. These pills are taken orally for a period of 21 days starting within the first five days of the menstrual cycle, followed by a 7-day break.

Mode of action:
Hormonal contraceptives prevent pregnancy by inhibiting ovulation and implantation. They also alter the quality of cervical mucus, making it hostile to sperm entry.

Advantages:
They are highly effective, easily reversible, and well accepted by many women. Emergency use of hormonal preparations within 72 hours of coitus can also prevent pregnancy.

Disadvantages:
They may cause side effects such as nausea, abdominal pain, irregular menstrual bleeding or breast tenderness, though these effects are generally mild.

Q.3. STDs are a threat to reproductive health. Describe any two such diseases and suggest preventive measures.
Ans. Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are infections transmitted mainly through sexual contact and pose a serious threat to reproductive health.

AIDS (HIV infection): HIV infection damages the immune system, reducing the body’s ability to fight infections. It is transmitted through unprotected sexual contact, infected blood transfusion, sharing of needles and from infected mother to foetus.

Gonorrhoea: Gonorrhoea is a bacterial STD affecting the reproductive tract. Early symptoms include pain, swelling and discharge from the genital region. If untreated, it may lead to infertility.

Preventive measures: Avoiding sexual contact with unknown or multiple partners, consistent use of condoms during coitus, early diagnosis and complete treatment by qualified doctors are effective measures to prevent STDs.

Q.4. Do you justify the statutory ban on amniocentesis in our country? Give reasons.
Ans. 

• Purpose of amniocentesis: Amniocentesis is a prenatal diagnostic procedure in which a small amount of amniotic fluid is sampled to detect chromosomal abnormalities, genetic disorders and certain foetal conditions. It is a valuable test for diagnosing hereditary abnormalities.
• Misuse for sex determination: When amniocentesis (or other prenatal diagnostic techniques) is used to determine foetal sex and this information is used for sex selection, it leads to sex-selective abortion and an imbalanced sex ratio. Because of such misuse, statutory restrictions on use of prenatal diagnostic techniques for sex determination are justified to prevent female foeticide.
• Legal and ethical controls: Legal regulation helps ensure that prenatal diagnostic procedures are used only for legitimate medical reasons (to detect genetic or congenital disorders) and not for non-medical sex selection. This protects the rights of the unborn child and helps maintain social balance.
• MTP and regulation: Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) is permitted under specified medical and legal conditions to protect the health of the mother or in cases of severe foetal abnormality; however, misuse of diagnostics to enable sex-selective MTP has been a social problem addressed through statutory bans and strict regulation.

Q.5. Enumerate and describe any five reasons for introducing sex education to school-going children.
Ans.

1. Accurate knowledge of reproductive anatomy and physiology: To help students understand their bodies, reproductive organs and the physiological processes of menstruation, conception and pregnancy.
2. Understanding adolescence: To prepare young people for physical, emotional and psychological changes during puberty and reduce anxiety and confusion.
3. Prevention of myths and misconceptions: To replace incorrect beliefs about sex and reproduction with scientific facts and promote responsible attitudes.
4. Knowledge of safe and hygienic practices and prevention of STDs: To teach methods of prevention (e.g., condoms), the importance of hygiene, and the need for timely medical help for infections.
5. Protection from abuse and promotion of consent: To educate children about personal boundaries, recognition and reporting of sexual abuse, and the importance of consent and respectful relationships.