Old NCERT Summary (RS Sharma): The Later Vedic Period | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Expansion in the Later Vedic Period (C.1000 - 500B.C.)

1. Vedic Texts and Samhitas:
   • Later Vedic period knowledge is mainly derived from Vedic texts compiled after the Rig Veda.
   • Rig Veda Samhita is the oldest, and Sama Veda Samhita is a modified collection for singing.
   • Yajur Veda Samhita includes hymns and rituals, while Atharva Veda focuses on charms and spells.
2. Brahmanas and Compilation:
   • Later Vedic texts include Br'ahmanas explaining rituals and social aspects.
   • Compiled in the upper Gangetic basin around 1000-600 B.C.
3. Archaeological Evidence - Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Sites:
   • Around 500 PGW sites found in western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan.
   • Inhabitants used painted grey pottery and iron weapons.
4. Expansion of Aryans:
   • Aryans expanded from Punjab to western Uttar Pradesh (Ganga-Yamuna doab).
   • Bharatas and Purus combined to form the Kuru people, initially living between the Sarasvati and Drishadvati rivers.
5. Kuru-Panchala Kingdom:
   • Kuru tribe expanded to Delhi and upper doab; coalesced with Panchalas in the middle doab.
   • Capital at Hastinapur, involved in the Mahabharata's Bharata battle around 950 B.C.
6. Hastinapur Excavations:
   • Excavations at Hastinapur (900 B.C. to 500 B.C.) revealed settlements, but not as described in the Mahabharata.
   • Hastinapur was flooded, leading remnants of the Kuru clan to move to Kausambi near Allahabad.
7. Panchala Kingdom:
   • Panchala kingdom covered modern Bareilley, Badaun, and Farukhabad districts.
   • Known for philosopher kings and Brahmana theologians.
8. Eastern Expansion:
   • Around 600 B.C., Vedic people expanded further east to Kosala in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Videha in north Bihar.
9. Encounters with Other Cultures:
   • Encounters with people using copper implements and black-and-red earthen pots.
   • Possible encounters with late Harappan culture, but not well-defined.
10. Expansion Success Factors: Vedic people succeeded in expansion due to iron weapons and horse-drawn chariots.

In summary, the later Vedic period saw the compilation of Vedic texts, archaeological evidence from PGW sites, the expansion of Aryans into the Gangetic basin, the Kuru-Panchala kingdom, excavations at Hastinapur, and encounters with diverse cultures during their expansion.

The PGW— -Iron Phase Culture and Later Vedic Economy

1. Introduction of Iron:
   • Around 1000 B.C., iron usage began in the Gandhara area (Pakistan) and Baluchistan.
   • Iron implements were found in eastern Punjab, western Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan around the same time.
2. Iron Weapons and Agriculture:
   • Iron weapons, like arrowheads and spearheads, became common in western Uttar Pradesh by 800 B.C.
   • Iron was likely used to clear forests in the upper Gangetic basin.
   • Agriculture was the primary livelihood despite primitive tools and scarcity of bullocks.
3. Rise of Rice and Wheat:
   • Barley continued, but rice and wheat became chief crops during the later Vedic period.
   • Vedic people encountered rice in the doab, called "vrihi" in Vedic texts.
4. Arts and Crafts:
   • Diverse arts and crafts emerged, including smiths and smelters working with iron.
   • Weaving, leatherwork, pottery, carpentry, and jewelry-making progressed.
   • Four types of pottery: black-and-red ware, black-slipped ware, painted grey ware, and red ware.
   • Painted Grey Ware (PGW) was distinctive, and used for rituals and eating.
5. Settled Life and Agriculture:
   • Agriculture and crafts allowed for a settled life.
   • Painted grey ware sites are found in western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Panjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan.
   • Nearly 500 sites, mainly in the upper Gangetic basin, with evidence of settled life.
   • Mud brick and cattle-and-daub houses were discovered in excavations.
6. Primitive Towns and Commerce:
   • Primitive towns like Hastinapur and Kausambi emerged at the end of the later Vedic period.
   • Proto-urban sites with limited town features.
   • Vedic texts mentioned seas and sea voyages, hinting at some commerce.
7. Material Progress:
   • Later Vedic phase marked a material advance.
   • Pastoral and semi-nomadic lifestyles gave way to settled agricultural communities.
   • Agriculture became the primary source of livelihood.
   • Diverse arts and crafts supplemented settled life in the upper Gangetic plains.

Political Organization

1. Varna System:
   • Later Vedic society was divided into four varnas: Brahmins, Kshatriyas (or Rajanyas), Vaishyas, and Shudras.
   • The Brahmanas gained significant power due to the growing cult of sacrifice.
2. Roles of Varnas:
   • Vaishyas constituted common people involved in producing functions like agriculture, cattle breeding, and trade.
   • Brahmanas and Kshatriyas lived on tributes collected from the vaishyas, with the priests aiding in this process.
   • Upanayana, sacred thread ceremonies, were common for the first three varnas, while Shudras were deprived of these rituals.
3. Varna Distinctions:
   • Vedic texts marked a clear distinction between the higher orders (Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, vaishyas) and the Shudras.
   • Shudras participated in certain public rituals, indicating survival as the original Aryan people.
   • Some artisans, like chariot makers, enjoyed high status and received the sacred thread ceremony.
4. Family Structure:
   • The increasing power of the father was observed in family structures, including the ability to disinherit a son.
   • Primogeniture became stronger in princely families.
   • Male ancestors were worshipped, and women generally held a subordinate position.
5. Gotra and Exogamy:
   • The institution of gotra emerged, signifying descent from a common ancestor.
   • Gotra exogamy became a practice, prohibiting marriages between individuals of the same gotra or lineage.
6. Ashramas - Stages of Life:
   • Ashramas, the four stages of life, were not well-established in Vedic times.
   • Post-Vedic texts mention four ashramas: Brahmachari (student), Grihasth (householder), Vanaprastha (hermit), and Sannyasin (ascetic).
   • In later Vedic times, only the first three stages were commonly practiced; the ascetic stage was not well-established.

Good, Rituals said Philosophy

1. Evolution of Vedic Deities:
   • In later Vedic times, the importance of Rig Vedic gods Indra and Agni declined.
   • Prajapati, the creator, became the supreme deity in the later Vedic pantheon.
   • Other minor gods from the Rig Vedic period gained prominence, such as Rudra (god of animals) and Vishnu (conceived as the preserver and protector).
2. Symbolic Worship and Idolatry:
   • Some objects started being worshiped as symbols of divinity, indicating signs of idolatry in later Vedic times.
   • Pushan, originally associated with cattle, came to be regarded as the god of the shudras.
3. Change in Worship Practices:
   • People continued worshiping gods for material reasons, but the mode of worship changed significantly.
   • Prayers were still recited, but sacrifices became more important, assuming both public and domestic characteristics.
   • Sacrifices involved the large-scale killing of animals and the destruction of cattle wealth.
4. Role of Priests and Sacrificer:
   • Guests in sacrifices were known as "goghna" or those fed on cattle.
   • The sacrificer, known as the yajamana, played a crucial role, and success depended on correctly uttering magical formulae during sacrifices.
   • Sacrificial gifts included cows, gold, cloth, horses, and sometimes portions of territory as dakshina (offering).
5. Philosophical Reaction and Upanishads:
   • Towards the end of the Vedic period, a strong reaction against priestly domination, cults, and rituals emerged.
   • The Upanishads were compiled around 600 B.C., particularly in the lands of the Panchalas and Videha.
   • These philosophical texts criticized rituals, emphasizing the importance of right belief and knowledge.
   • They stressed the acquisition of knowledge of the self (atman) and understanding the relationship of atman with Brahma.

In summary, the later Vedic period saw a shift in the prominence of deities, a change in worship practices with an increased focus on sacrifices, the role of priests and sacrificers in rituals, the emergence of symbolic worship and idolatry, and a philosophical reaction against priestly dominance leading to the compilation of the Upanishads.