Spectrum Summary: General Features of Socio-Religious Reform Movements | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Factors Leading to the Desire for Reform

• At the beginning of the 19th century, a new and modern vision emerged among certain enlightened segments of Indian society. This vision would significantly influence the course of events for many years to come and even beyond. 
• This awakening, sometimes referred to as the 'Renaissance' though not entirely accurately, did not always unfold as intended. It also gave rise to some undesirable by-products, which have become as integral to daily life in the Indian subcontinent as the positive outcomes of these reform movements. 

Impact of British Rule

• The colonial government in India had a complex but decisive impact during this crucial period of modern Indian history.
• The influence of British rule on Indian society and culture was markedly different from previous invaders.
• Earlier invaders who settled in India were either absorbed by its superior culture or interacted positively with it, becoming part of the land and its people.
• In contrast, the British conquest occurred when India was stagnant, while Europe was enlightened by science and a scientific outlook.

Social Conditions Ripe for Reform

Religious and Social Ills

• In the 19th century, Indian society was trapped in a cycle of religious superstitions and social ignorance.
• Hinduism was deeply influenced by magic and superstition, with priests having a strong and unhealthy impact on people’s minds.
• The practices of idolatry and polytheism strengthened the priests' control, as their exclusive knowledge of scriptures gave a misleading nature to all religious systems.
• Religious ideology had the power to persuade people to do anything.

Depressing Position of Women

• The social conditions were equally grim, particularly for women.
• The killing of female infants at birth was not uncommon, and child marriage was widespread.
• Polygamy was a prevalent practice, and in Bengal, under Kulinism, elderly men married very young girls.
• Many women had little semblance of a married life, yet (especially among higher castes) when their husbands died, they were expected to commit sati, which Raja Rammohan Roy described as a “murder according to every shastra.”
• If they avoided this social coercion, they faced a life of misery and humiliation.

The Caste Problem

• Caste was another crippling factor, creating a system of segregation based on ritual status.
• At the bottom were the untouchables, who faced severe disabilities and restrictions.
• This system fractured society into numerous groups and became a significant barrier to the development of a united national identity and the spread of democracy.
• Caste consciousness, especially regarding marriage, was also present among Muslims, Christians, and Sikhs, who practiced untouchability, albeit in a less severe manner.
• The rigid caste system stifled social mobility, deepened social divisions, and hindered individual initiative.
• Most importantly, the humiliation associated with untouchability, a core aspect of the caste system, violated human dignity.

Opposition to Western Culture

• After the establishment of colonial rule in India, there was a systematic effort to promote colonial culture and ideology as the dominant cultural force.
• In response to this challenge, there was a concerted effort in the 19th century to reinvigorate traditional institutions and harness the potential of traditional culture.

New Awareness among Enlightened Indians

• The impact of modern Western culture, coupled with the awareness of being defeated by a foreign power, sparked a new awakening in India. It became clear that a vast country like India had been colonized by a small group of foreigners due to weaknesses within Indian social structure and culture. 
• Initially, it seemed that India was lagging behind in the race of civilization, leading to diverse reactions. Some English-educated Bengali youth developed a revulsion for Hindu religion and culture, abandoning old religious ideas and adopting practices offensive to Hindu sentiments, such as drinking wine and eating beef. 
• Despite these varied responses, there was a shared conviction about the need to reform social and religious life. In the late 19th century, the rising tide of nationalism and democracy found expression in movements aimed at reforming and democratizing social institutions and religious outlooks. 
• Factors such as the growth of nationalist sentiments, emergence of new economic forces, spread of education, impact of modern Western ideas and culture, and increased global awareness strengthened the resolve to reform. The socio-cultural regeneration of 19th century India was prompted by the colonial presence but was not created by it. 

Social and Ideological Foundations of Reform

Middle-Class Foundation

• The social foundation for the regeneration observed in the 19th century was the emerging middle class and the educated intellectuals, both those educated in traditional ways and those educated in the West. 
• However, there was a notable difference between the broadly middle-class ideals influenced by a growing awareness of contemporary developments in the West and a predominantly non-middle-class social foundation. 
• The intelligentsia of 19th century India sought its model in the European 'middle class', which had, through movements like the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Enlightenment, and democratic reforms, transformed the West from medieval to modern times. 
• This knowledge was acquired through Western education. 
• Despite this aspiration, the 19th century Indian intelligentsia did not emerge from trade or industry, as these sectors were under British control. 
• Instead, their roots were in government service or professions such as law, education, journalism, and medicine, often combined with some connection to land through intermediate tenures. 

The Intellectual Criteria for Reform Movements

The reform movements in India were united by three main ideas: rationalism, religious universalism, and humanism. These concepts guided the way reformers thought about and approached social issues.

Rationalism

Rationalism was used to judge the relevance of social practices. Thinkers like Raja Rammohan Roy and Akshay Kumar Dutt believed in understanding the world through reason and causality. They argued that social and natural phenomena could be explained through rational and mechanical processes. This rational approach led them to criticize traditional beliefs and practices that lacked social utility.

• As a result, movements like the Brahmo Samaj and the Aligarh Movement questioned the infallibility of ancient texts like the Vedas and sought to align religious teachings with modern needs.
• Syed Ahmed Khan, for instance, argued that religious principles were not set in stone and could evolve.
• Many reformers prioritized logic, reason, and scientific evidence over religious authority.
• Swami Vivekananda, for example, advocated for a rational basis for religious beliefs, similar to scientific inquiry.
• While some reformers occasionally appealed to faith or tradition, the overall perspective was rational and secular.
• They aimed to provide alternatives to existing social practices based on reason and evidence.

Balanced Approach

The reformers did not intend to completely reject the past or blindly revive it. Instead, they sought a balanced approach that respected tradition while allowing for necessary changes. There was also a universalistic aspect to their perspective.

• Raja Rammohan Roy, for instance, viewed different religions as expressions of a common universal theism.
• He defended the core principles of various religions while critiquing specific practices, such as the polytheism in Hinduism and the trinitarianism in Christianity.
• Similarly, Syed Ahmed Khan believed that all prophets shared a common faith, even though different cultures had different prophets.
• This universalist outlook helped reformers address the strong influence of religious identity on social and political attitudes.

Humanitarian Morality

A new sense of humanitarian morality was central to these movements, emphasizing the idea that humanity can progress and that moral values should promote human advancement. The humanist aspect was evident in the belief that individuals have the right to interpret religious texts based on reason and human welfare, challenging the authority of priests in dictating religious practices.

• While religious reformation was important, these movements also focused on worldly existence rather than solely on spiritual concerns.
• Given the pervasive influence of religion in social practices and its dominance as an ideology, addressing religious issues was crucial for any social action.

Cultural and Ideological Transformation

The reform movements aimed to transform the entire cultural and ideological framework, not just specific social practices. They sought to regenerate traditional institutions and create an alternative cultural-ideological system.

• This involved reconstructing traditional knowledge, promoting vernacular languages, establishing new educational systems, defending religious practices, revitalizing Indian art and literature, and researching pre-colonial technologies.
• The emphasis was on enhancing Indian dress, food, and systems of medicine, reflecting a holistic approach to cultural regeneration and social reform.

Two Streams

The reform movements of the 19th century can be broadly divided into two categories: reformist movements and revivalist movements.

Reformist Movements: These movements aimed to reform and modernize Hindu society by appealing to reason and conscience. They sought to address social issues while maintaining a connection to tradition. Examples include:

• Brahmo Samaj: Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, it emphasized monotheism and social reform.
• Prarthana Samaj: Focused on prayer and social upliftment, inspired by the Brahmo Samaj.
• Aligarh Movement: Led by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, it aimed at modernizing Muslim education and social practices.

Revivalist Movements: These movements sought to revive and strengthen traditional practices, often emphasizing a return to perceived historical purity. They relied more on tradition than on reason. Examples include:

• Arya Samaj: Founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati, it aimed to return to the Vedic roots and promote social reform.
• Deobandi Movement: Focused on Islamic revivalism and reform within the framework of traditional Islamic teachings.

Both reformist and revivalist movements shared a common goal of addressing social issues but differed in their approach—whether by 
emphasizing tradition or by advocating for reason and conscience.

Direction of Social Reform

The newly educated middle class, inspired by humanistic ideals of social equality and the equal worth of all individuals, significantly influenced the direction of social reform. Initially, social reform movements were closely linked to religious reforms because social issues like untouchability and gender-based inequity derived legitimacy from religion. However, over time, these movements dissociated from religion and adopted a secular approach.

Early Social Reform Movements

• Narrow Social Base: Initially, reform movements were limited to the upper and middle classes and upper castes, who tried to balance modern views with existing social conditions.
• Key Organizations and Individuals: Organizations like the Social Conference, the Servants of India Society, and Christian missionaries, along with individuals like Jyotiba Phule, Gopalhari Deshmukh, K.T. Telang, B.M. Malabari, D.K. Karve, Sri Narayana Guru, E.V. Ramaswami Naicker, and B.R. Ambedkar, were instrumental in social reform.

Role of National Movement

• Leadership and Organisation: The national movement in the 20th century provided the leadership and organization for social reform.
• Mass Communication: Reformers used Indian languages and various media such as novels, dramas, poetry, short stories, the press, and later cinema to propagate their views.

Agenda of Social Reform Movements

• Betterment of Women’s Status: Fighting for the improvement of women’s status in society.
• Removal of Untouchability: Striving to eliminate disabilities arising from untouchability.

Fight for Betterment of Position of Women

• The reformers had to work against great odds. Women were generally accorded a low status and were considered to be inferior adjuncts to men, with no identity of their own.
• They enjoyed no scope of giving expression to their talents as they were suppressed by practices such as purdah, early marriage, ban on widow-marriage, sati, etc.
• Both Hindu and Muslim women were economically and socially dependent on male relatives, while education was generally denied to them.
• Hindu women did not enjoy the right to inherit property or to terminate an undesirable marriage.
• Muslim women could inherit property but only half as much as men could, while in matters of divorce there was no equality between men and women.
• Polygamy was prevalent among Hindus as well as Muslims.
• Their glorification as wives and mothers was the only way in which society recognised the contribution of women as members of society.
• The improvement of the status of women in society was considered to be vital, and social reformers worked towards this since a radical change in the domestic sphere—where initial socialisation of the individual takes place and where a crucial role is played by women—was the need of the hour.
• It was clearly understood that this change would translate into reformed homes and reformed men, and that no country whose females were sunk in ignorance could ever make significant progress in civilisation.
• The social reform movements, the freedom struggle, movements led by enlightened women themselves and, later, free India’s Constitution have done much for the emancipation of women.
• The reformers basically appealed to the doctrines of individualism and equality, and argued, to bolster their appeal, that true religion did not sanction an inferior status to women.
• They raised their voice against degrading customs such as polygamy, purdah, child marriage, restrictions on widow marriage, and worked relentlessly to establish educational opportunities.

Steps Taken to Improve Women's Position Under British Rule

Due to the tireless efforts of reformers, the government adopted various administrative measures to enhance the condition of women.

Abolition of Sati

• Influenced by the efforts of enlightened Indian reformers led by Raja Rammohan Roy, the practice of sati was declared illegal by the government under Governor-General William Bentinck.
• The Regulation of 1829 made sati punishable by criminal courts as culpable homicide.
• Initially applicable to Bengal Presidency, the regulation was extended to Madras and Bombay Presidencies in 1830.

Preventing Female Infanticide

• The Bengal regulations of 1795 and 1804 declared female infanticide illegal and equivalent to murder.
• An act passed in 1870 made it compulsory for parents to register the birth of all babies, with a focus on verifying female children in areas where infanticide was practiced.

Widow Remarriage

• The Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act of 1856, influenced by reformers like Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, legalised widow remarriage and declared children from such marriages legitimate.
• Vidyasagar used Vedic texts to support widow remarriage, and efforts were made by others like Vishnu Shastri Pandit and Karsandas Mulji to advocate for this cause.
• Reformers like Professor D.K. Karve and Veerasalingam Pantulu also worked towards uplifting Hindu widows and promoting remarriage.

Controlling Child Marriage

• The Native Marriage Act of 1872 aimed to prohibit child marriage but had limited impact as it was not applicable to Hindus, Muslims, and other faiths.
• The Age of Consent Act (1891), pushed by reformer B.M. Malabari, forbade the marriage of girls below 12, influenced by the case of Rukhmabai Raut.
• Rukhmabai’s case, where she refused to live with her husband married at 11, brought attention to child marriage and women’s rights.
• The Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929, or Sarda Act, increased marriage ages to 18 for boys and 14 for girls.
• In free India, the Child Marriage Restraint (Amendment) Act, 1978 raised marriage ages for girls to 18 and for boys to 21.

Education of Women

Early Efforts by Christian Missionaries

• The Calcutta Female Juvenile Society was established in 1819 by Christian missionaries, marking one of the earliest efforts in promoting women’s education in India.

J.E.D. Bethune and the Bethune School

• J.E.D. Bethune, president of the Council of Education in Calcutta, founded the Bethune School in 1849. This school was a significant milestone in the movement for women’s education that gained momentum in the 1840s and 1850s.

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar’s Contributions

• Vidyasagar played a crucial role in the establishment of around 35 girls’ schools in Bengal and is recognized as a pioneer of women’s education in India.

Promoters in Maharashtra: Jagannath Shankarsheth and Bhau Daji Lad

• In Maharashtra, figures like Jagannath Shankarsheth ‘Nana’ and Bhau Daji Lad were instrumental in promoting girls’ schools.
• Jagannath ‘Nana’ Shankarsheth. He was one of the founders of the School Society and Native School of Bombay, which underwent several name changes over the years. He played a vital role in supporting girls’ education by providing accommodation for schools and starting new institutions.
• Bhau Daji Lad. As the first Indian president of the Students’ Literary and Scientific Society, he advocated for female education and had a girls’ school named in his honor.

Jyotirao Phule and Savitribai Phule

• Jyotirao Phule and his wife Savitribai were among the most notable pioneers of women’s education.
• Phule, holding progressive views for his time, encouraged Savitribai to learn and later, inspired by a girls’ school run by American missionaries, they opened the first school for girls in Pune in 1848.
• Overcoming Opposition. Despite facing significant opposition to girls’ education, the Phules shared the responsibilities of teaching, with Savitribai becoming one of the first female school teachers in modern India.
• Expansion of Schools. They continued to open several more schools in and around Pune, including night schools for working individuals.

Alexandra Society and Cornelia Sorabji

• In 1863, the Alexandra Society of Parsis was established to educate Parsi girls. Cornelia Sorabji, a Parsi woman and the first female graduate of Bombay University in 1887, later advocated for equal educational opportunities for women.

Government Support and Further Developments

• Government Support. After initial resistance, female education received support from figures like Lord Dalhousie and through policies such as Charles Wood’s Despatch on Education in 1854.
• Institutional Developments. The Women’s Medical Service in 1914, the Indian Women’s University by Professor D.K. Karve in 1916, and Lady Hardinge Medical College in Delhi in the same year were significant developments in women’s education and health.
• Health Initiatives. Dufferin hospitals, established in the 1880s, provided health facilities for women, contributing to their overall well-being.

Participation in Social Movements

• Women’s participation in the swadeshi, anti-partition, and Home Rule movements in the early 20th century marked a significant shift, providing them with a liberating experience.
• Post-1918, women actively engaged in political processes, trade union, kisan, and revolutionary movements, furthering their social and political involvement.

Women’s Organisations

1. Bharat Stree Mahamandal

• Founded in 1910 by Sarla Devi Chaudhurani in Allahabad.
• Aimed at promoting women’s education, abolishing the purdah system, and improving women’s socio-economic and political status.
• Sarla Devi criticized men working for women’s upliftment, suggesting they were under the influence of traditional norms.

2. Ladies Social Conference (Bharat Mahila Parishad)

• Established in 1904 by Ramabai Ranade in Bombay, under the National Social Conference.
• Focused on social reform and women’s issues.

3. Arya Mahila Samaj

• Founded by Pandita Ramabai Saraswati to advocate for women’s education and social reform.
• Played a crucial role in improving the educational syllabus for women, leading to medical education for women in institutions like Lady Dufferin College.

4. National Council of Women in India

• Formed in 1925 as a national branch of the International Council of Women.
• Prominent figures included Mehribai Tata, Cornelia Sarabji, Tarabai Premchand, Shaffi Tyabji, and Maharani Sucharu Devi.
• Criticized for adopting a philanthropic style similar to upper-class English women.

5. All India Women’s Conference (AIWC)

• Founded in 1927 by Margaret Cousins with an egalitarian approach.
• First conference held at Ferguson College, Pune.
• Objectives included social justice, equal rights, and opportunities for all, regardless of birth or sex.
• Worked towards various legislative reforms such as the Sarda Act (1929), Hindu Women’s Right to Property Act (1937), Factory Act (1947), and several others post-independence.

6. Legislative Reforms

• AIWC played a significant role in advocating for various legislative reforms aimed at improving women’s rights and social justice.
• Examples include the Hindu Marriage and Divorce Act (1954), Special Marriage Act (1954), Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act (1956), and others.

Struggle Against Caste-Based Exploitation

• The four-fold division of Hindu society in the later-Vedic period was further divided into numerous sub-castes due to racial admixture, geographical expansion, and diversification of crafts which gave rise to new vocations.
• The concept of Hindu chaturvarnashrama dictated that the caste of a person determined the status and relative purity of different sections of the population.
• Caste determined various aspects of a person’s life, including education, ownership of property, profession, social interactions, and even basic necessities like dress, food, and water sources.
• The ‘untouchables’ or the scheduled castes/dalits were the worst affected by this discriminatory system, facing humiliating and inhuman disabilities based on the principle of inequality by birth.

Factors That Helped to Mitigate Caste-based Discrimination

• British Rule: British rule in India, albeit unintentionally, created conditions that undermined caste consciousness to some extent. The introduction of private property in land and the free sale of land disrupted traditional caste equations. Modern commerce, industry, and urbanization provided new economic opportunities and increased population mobility. The British administration’s concept of equality before the law and the secular education system further weakened social and legal inequalities, opening administrative services to all castes and diminishing the judicial functions of caste panchayats.
• Social Reform Movements: Various social reform movements from the mid-19th century aimed to undermine caste-based exploitation. Organizations like the Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, and the Theosophists worked to spread education among untouchables and remove restrictions on their access to public resources. Although some reformers defended the chaturvarna system, they criticized untouchability and the rigid hereditary basis of caste distinctions. The Arya Samaj, for instance, aimed to reconstruct Hindu society on the original four-fold division and uphold the right of even the lowest castes to study the scriptures.
• National Movement: The national movement drew inspiration from principles of liberty and equality, opposing caste privileges and advocating for equal civic rights and individual development. Mass participation in demonstrations and satyagraha struggles helped dilute caste divisions. Congress governments in various provinces after 1937 initiated upliftment programs for depressed classes, such as free education for Harijans. State rulers like the Maharajas of Travancore, Indore, and Devas also took the initiative to open all state temples to lower castes.
• Gandhi’s Efforts: Mahatma Gandhi focused on eradicating untouchability based on humanism and reason. He believed that the Shastras did not sanction untouchability and founded the All India Harijan Sangh in 1932 to promote this cause.
• Awakening Among Lower Castes: Increasing educational opportunities and general awareness led to a stir among lower castes, evolving into a strong movement defending their rights against upper-caste oppression. Leaders like Jyotiba Phule, Gopal Baba Walangkar, and Kisan Faguji Bansod played pivotal roles in uplifting untouchables and challenging brahminical dominance. Ambedkar, who faced severe caste discrimination in his childhood, became a prominent figure in this struggle. He emphasized the need for a nationalist consciousness that addressed social divisions and founded various organizations like the Bahushkrit Hitakarani Sabha and the All India Scheduled Castes Federation to advocate for the rights of depressed classes.
• Non-Brahmin Movement: Other leaders, such as the Maharaja of Kolhapur, encouraged the non-brahmin movement, which spread to southern states, involving various intermediate castes and Muslims. E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker led the Self-Respect Movement in South India during the 1920s, advocating for the rights of non-brahmin castes.
• Struggles Against Upper-Caste Domination: Figures like Sri Narayana Guru in Kerala and Dr. Ambedkar in Maharashtra led significant struggles against upper-caste domination. Guru’s slogan of “one religion, one caste, one God for mankind” and Ambedkar’s Mahad Satyagraha in 1927 challenged upper-caste regressive customs. Ambedkar’s burning of the Manusmriti in 1927 symbolized the rejection of caste inequalities, and he established the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha to bring dalit grievances to the government’s attention.
• Constitutional Safeguards: The Constitution of free India enshrined equality and non-discrimination on the basis of caste as fundamental principles. The struggle against caste discrimination was not successful during British rule due to the foreign government’s limitations and the need for economic and political upliftment, which could only be realized under a free Indian government.

Abolishment of Untouchability

The Constitution abolishes untouchability and declares any disability arising from it as unlawful. It prohibits restrictions on access to public places such as wells, tanks, bathing ghats, hotels, cinemas, and clubs.

Promotion of Social Justice

One of the Directive Principles in the Constitution emphasizes the State's responsibility to promote the welfare of the people by securing and protecting a social order informed by justice—social, economic, and political—in all national institutions.