Shankar IAS Summary: Climate Change Organizations | Environment for UPSC CSE PDF Download

• UN Summit Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janerio in June 1992 adopted, by consensus, the first multilateral legal instrument on Climate Change, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change or the UNFCCC. There are now 198 Parties (197 States and 1 regional economic integration organization).
• All subsequent multilateral negotiations on different aspects of climate change, including both adaptation and mitigation, are being held based on the principles and objectives set out by the UNFCCC.

• To strengthen the global response to climate change
• The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto Japan, on 11 December 1997. Due to a complex ratification process, it entered into force on 16 Feb 2005 Kyoto Protocol is what "operationalizes” the Convention.
• It commits industrialized countries to stabilize greenhouse gas emissions based on the principles of the Convention.
• The major distinction between the Protocol and the Convention is that while the Convention encouraged industrialized countries to stabilize GHG emissions, the Protocol commits them to do sets binding emission reduction targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community in its first commitment period.
• It only binds developed countries
• KP places a heavier burden on developed nations under its central principle: that of "common but differentiated responsibility 
• These targets add up to an average five percent emissions reduction compared to 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008 to 2012

KP is made up of:

• Reporting and verification procedures; 
• Flexible market-based mechanisms, which in turn have their own governance procedures; 
• A compliance system.

So, two things make KP tick

• Emissions Reduction Commitments:
  (i) The first was binding emissions reduction commitments for developed country parties. This meant the space to pollute was limited.
  (ii) Carbon dioxide, became a new commodity. KP now began to internalize what was now recognized as an unpriced externality.
• Flexible Market Mechanisms:
  (i) Joint Implementation (JI)
  (ii) The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
  (iii) Emission Trading

The objectives of Kyoto mechanisms:

• Stimulate sustainable development through technology transfer and investment
• Help countries with Kyoto commitments to meet their targets by reducing emissions or removing carbon from the atmosphere in other countries in a cost-effective way
• Encourage the private sector and developing countries to contribute to emission reduction efforts

Joint Implementation

• Allows a country with an emission reduction or limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol to earn emission reduction units (ERUs) from an emission-reduction or emission removal project in another Annex B Party, each equivalent to one tonne of CO₂, which can be counted towards meeting its Kyoto target.
• Projects stalling as from the year 2000 may be eligible as J1 projects, ERU issued from 2008

Clean Development mechanism:

• Allows a country with an emission-reduction or emission-limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to implement an emission-reduction project in developing Countries.
• It is the first global, environmental investment and credit scheme of its kind,
• Such projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO₂, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto Targets

Example:

• A CDM project activity might involve, for example, a rural electrification project using solar Panels or the installation of more energy-efficient boilers.
• The Mechanism stimulates sustainable development and emission reductions, while giving industrialized countries some flexibility in how they meet their emission reduction or limitation targets 
• Most of the CDM projects were implemented in China and India as climate in these countries is favourable for implementing projects for almost all the spheres

Carbon Trading:
The name given to the exchange of emission permits. This exchange may take place within the economy or may take the form of international transaction.

Two types of Carbon trading

• Emission trading- Emission permit is known alternatively as carbon credit 
• Offset trading- Another variant of carbon credit is to be earned by a country by investing some amount of money in such projects, known as carbon projects, which will emit lesser amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere

Non-Compliance of Kyoto And Penalties

• If a country does not meet the requirements for measurements and reporting said country looses the privilege of gaining credit through joint implementation projects. 
• If a country goes above its emissions cap, and does not try to make up the difference through any of the mechanisms available, then said country must make up the difference plus an additional thirty percent during the next period. 
• The country could also be banned from participating in the "cap and trade' program.

BALI MEET

• Bali Meet was the meeting of 190 countries that are party to a UN treaty on climate change held in December 2007.
• To discuss what happens after 2012-what are countries expected to do after the first phase of Kyoto ends in 2012.

Bali Road Map includes

• The Bali Action Plan (BAP)
• The Ad Hoc working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol negotiations and their 2009 deadline
• Launch of the Adaptation Fund, Decisions on technology transfer and On reducing emissions from deforestation.

Bali Action Plan (BAP)

• A shared vision for long-term cooperative action, including a long-term global goal for emission reductions. 
• Enhanced national/international action on mitigation of climate change. Enhanced action on adaptation.
• Enhanced action on technology development and transfer to support action on mitigation and adaptation. 
• Enhanced action on the provision of financial resources and investment to support action on mitigation and adaptation and technology cooperation.

COP 15 COPENHAGEN SUMMIT- The summit concluded with the CoP taking a note of Copenhagen Accord (a five-nation accord- BASIC and US).

• The Copenhagen Accord is a non-binding agreement.
• Developed countries (Annex-1) agree to set targets for reductions in their greenhouse gas emissions by 2020
• Developing countries agree to pursue nationally appropriate mitigation strategies to slow the growth of their emissions, but are not committed to reducing their carbon output.
• Developed countries would raise funds of $30 billion from 2010-2012 for new and additional resources Agrees a "goal" for the world to raise $100 billion per year by 2020. New multilateral funding for adaptation will be delivered, with a governance structure.

COP 16 CANCUN SUMMIT

• All Parties to the Convention (including the developed and developing countries) have agreed to report their voluntary mitigation goals for implementation
• Decisions were taken at Cancun to set up a Green Climate Fund, a Technology Mechanism, and an Adaptation Committee at global level to support developing
• Country actions for adaptation and mitigation process to design a 'Green Climate Fund'

MECHANISM OF COP 16

• Technology mechanism in 16th session of the COP in Cancun 20101 Facilitate the implementation of enhanced action-on technology development and transfer in order to support action on mitigation and adaptation to climate change.
• Green climate fund will support projects, programme, policies and other activities in developing country Parties. The Fund will be governed by the GCF Board. The World Bank was invited to serve as the interim trusteed 
• The Adaptation Fund was established to finance concrete adaptation projects and programmes in developing country Parties to the Kyoto Protocol that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. Financed from the share of proceeds on the clean development mechanism project activities.
• Adaptation committee 
  (i) Providing technical support and guidance to the Parties
  (ii) Sharing of relevant information, knowledge, experience and good practices
  (iii) Promoting synergy and strengthening engagement with national, regional and international organizations, centers and networks.
  (iv) Considering information communicated by Parties on their monitoring and review of adaptation actions, support provided and received

COP 17 DURBAN SUMMIT
India had gone to Durban with two major demands that the principle of equity remain intact in any new climate regime and that this new global deal is launched after 2020.

Outcome

• New deal is to be finalized by 2015 and launched by 2020
• Second phase of Kyoto Protocol secured Green Climate Fund launched, though empty a§ yet Green-tech development mechanism put in place

Equity finds place back in future climate talks

• Adaptation mechanism
• Transparency mechanism
• India regains leadership of developing world, Wins on all its important non-negotiable
• Common but differentiated responsibility principle retained. India Secures 10 years of economic growth without carbon containment Intellectual Property Rights and technology not as well anchored in new deal Loopholes for developed world not fully blocked
• Agriculture brought in by developed nations under climate change

REDD & REDD

• REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) is the global endeavor to create an incentive for developing countries to protect, better manage and save their forest resources, thus contributing to the global fight against climate change.
• REDD + goes beyond merely. Checking deforestation and forest degradation, and includes incentives for positive elements of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks. 
• REDD + conceptualizes flow of positive incentives' for demonstrated reduction in deforestation or for enhancing quality and expanse of forest cover. 
• India has made a submission to UNFCCC on "REDD, Sustainable Management of Forest! SMF) and Afforestation and Reforestation, (A&R)" in December 2008

THE GEF (Global Environment Facility)
To function under the guidance of the UNFCCC COP and be accountable to the COP established in 1991 by the world Bank in consultation with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), to provide funding to protect the global environment

The GEF now has six focal areas:

• Biological diversity;
• Climate change;
• International waters;
• Land degradation, primarily desertification and deforestation;
• Ozone layer depletion; and
• Persistent organic pollutants.

CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE

• While agriculture is the sector most vulnerable to climate change, it is also a major cause, directly accounting for about 14 percent of greenhouse gas emissions (IPCC 2007). 
• This is called the 'triple win': interventions that Would increase yields (poverty reduction and food Security), make yields more resilient in the face extremes (adaptation), and make the farm a solution to the climate change problem rather than part of the problem (mitigation).
• These triple wins are likely to require a package of interventions and be country-and locality specific in their application. This method of practicing agriculture is called Climate Smart Agriculture

INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE (PCC)

• Established by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1988 to provide the governments of the world with a clear scientific view of what is happening to the world’s climate.
• Headquarters in Geneva. Currently, 195 countries are members of the IPCC
• The IPCC is a scientific body. It reviews and assesses the most recent scientific, technical and socioeconomic information produced worldwide relevant to the understanding of climate change. It does not conduct any research nor does it monitor climate-related data or parameters

Key AR5 cross-cutting themes will be:

• Water and the Earth System: Change, Impacts and Responses; 
• Carbon Cycle including Ocean Acidification;
• Ice Sheets and Sea-Level Rise; 
• Mitigation, Adaptation and Sustainable Development; and Article 2 of the UNFCCC.

NATIONAL GREEN HOUSE GAS INVENTORIES PROGRAMME (NGGIP)

• The IPCC established the NGGIP, 
• To provide methods for estimating-national inventories of greenhouse gas emissions too, and removals from, the atmosphere.

GREEN ECONOMY

• The "Green Economy can be considered synonymous with a ’sustainable’ economy.
• However, the Green Economy concept often carries a more distinctive meaning Green economy focuses specifically on the fundamental changes that are required to ensure that economic systems are made more sustainable.
• Green Economy focuses on the ways to overcome the deeply rooted causes of unsustainable economic development.
• A Green Economy is one whose growth in income and employement is driven by public and private investments that reduce carbon emissions and pollution, enhance energy and resource efficiency, and prevent the loss of biodiversity and ecosystems

Three priorities in transition of economy to green economy are

• Decarbonizes the economy;
• commit the environmental community to justice and equity; and
• Conserve the biosphere.

Bali Meet

The Bali Meet convened in December 2007, bringing together representatives from 190 countries party to a UN treaty on climate change.

Objectives

• The primary goal of the treaty was to encourage global efforts in reducing greenhouse gases causing climate change.
• Discussions in Bali centered around the post-2012 period, addressing the actions countries should take after the initial phase of the Kyoto Protocol concluded.
• Developed nations advocated for both developed and developing countries, including India and China, to undertake emission cuts beyond 2012, necessitating a significant revision of the existing UN treaty.
• The Bali meeting aimed to establish new principles guiding a post-2012 agreement.

Bali Roadmap

• The participating nations endorsed the Bali Road Map, a two-year process aimed at finalizing a binding agreement in Copenhagen in 2009.
• Components of the Bali Road Map included:
  • The Bali Action Plan (BAP)
  • The Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol negotiations and their 2009 deadline
  • Launch of the Adaptation Fund
  • Decisions on technology transfer
  • Measures to reduce emissions from deforestation

Bali Action Plan

• The Conference of Parties initiated a comprehensive process to implement the Convention through long-term cooperative action beyond 2012, addressing key areas such as:
  • A shared vision for long-term cooperative action, including a global goal for emission reductions.
  • Enhanced national/international action on mitigation of climate change.
  • Enhanced action on adaptation.
  • Enhanced action on technology development and transfer supporting mitigation and adaptation.
  • Enhanced action on the provision of financial resources and investment for mitigation, adaptation, and technology cooperation.

Cop 15 Copenhagen Summit

• The absence of a legally binding agreement at CoP 15 in Copenhagen resulted primarily from disagreements between developed and developing nations.
• The summit concluded with CoP acknowledging the Copenhagen Accord, a non-binding agreement involving Basic nations and the US.
• The Copenhagen Accord emphasizes the necessity for significant international emissions reductions to limit the global temperature increase to below two degrees Celsius.
• Under the Accord, developed nations commit to setting targets for reducing their greenhouse gas emissions by 2020.
  
• Developing countries agree to pursue nationally appropriate mitigation strategies to curb emission growth but are not obligated to reduce their carbon output.
• Recognizes the need to establish a mechanism, including REDD-plus, to facilitate the mobilization of financial resources from developed countries to support these efforts.
• Encourages incentives for low-emitting economies in developing countries to continue on a low-emission development path.
• Agrees that developed countries will raise $30 billion from 2010-2012 in new and additional resources, with a "goal" for the world to raise $100 billion per year by 2020. New multilateral funding for adaptation will be included.

Cop 16 Cancun Summit

•  The Cancun Agreements encompass decisions in both the Convention and Kyoto Protocol negotiation tracks.
• According to the Cancun Agreements, all Parties to the Convention, including both developed and developing nations, have committed to reporting voluntary mitigation goals for implementation. These goals will undergo measurement, verification, or international consultation, following agreed-upon international guidelines.
  

Cancun Agreements

• Industrialized countries' targets are officially recognized, and they are mandated to develop low-carbon development plans and strategies, assess how to achieve them (including through market mechanisms), and report their inventories annually.
• Actions by developing countries to reduce emissions are officially acknowledged, with the establishment of a registry to record and match these actions to financial and technology support from industrialized countries. Progress reports from developing countries are to be published every two years.
• Decisions include a commitment of $30 billion in fast-start finance from industrialized countries to support climate action in the developing world up to 2012, with an intention to raise $100 billion in long-term funds by 2020.

Mechanism of COP 16

• Technology Mechanism
  • The 16th session of COP established a Technology Mechanism, accountable to the Conference of the Parties (COP), to facilitate enhanced action on technology development and transfer supporting mitigation and adaptation to climate change.
• Green Climate Fund
  • Parties at COP 16 established the Green Climate Fund (GCF) as an operating entity of the financial mechanism of the Convention. The GCF will support projects, programs, policies, and activities in developing country Parties and will be governed by the GCF Board. The World Bank serves as the interim trustee, pending a review three years after operationalization.
• Adaptation Fund
  • The Adaptation Fund was created to finance concrete adaptation projects and programs in developing country Parties to the Kyoto Protocol vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. It is financed from the share of proceeds on clean development mechanism project activities and other funding sources.
  • The Adaptation Fund is supervised and managed by the Adaptation Fund Board (AFB), with secretariat services provided by the Global Environment Facility (GEF), and the World Bank serves as trustee on an interim basis.

Cop 17 Durban Summit

•  India presented two key demands at the Durban Summit — maintaining the principle of equity in any new climate regime and launching a new global deal after 2020.

Outcome

• A new deal is set to be finalized by 2015 and launched by 2020.
• The second phase of the Kyoto Protocol was secured.
• The Green Climate Fund was launched, although currently empty. Additionally, a mechanism for green tech development was established.
• Equity regained prominence in future climate talks.
• Adaptation and transparency mechanisms were established.
• The summit ensured 10 years of economic growth without carbon containment.
• Intellectual Property Rights and technology were not firmly anchored in the new deal.
• Loopholes for the developed world were not entirely closed.
• Agriculture was brought into the climate change discussion by developed nations.

Doha Outcomes Cop 18 2012

Governments committed to working towards a universal climate change agreement by 2015, applicable to all countries and effective from 2020.

Amendment of the Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol, the sole existing and binding agreement where developed nations commit to quantitative greenhouse gas reductions, was amended to ensure seamless continuity.

• An 8-year second commitment period began on January 1st, 2013.
• The Kyoto Protocol's Market Mechanisms - Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), Joint Implementation (JI), and International Emissions Trading (IET) - were extended.
• Access to these mechanisms remained uninterrupted for all developed countries with targets for the second commitment period.
• The measurement, reporting, and verification (MRV) framework for developed countries were enhanced with the adoption of common tabular format tables for biennial reports, strengthening transparency and accountability.
• Parties included in Annex I with second commitment period targets could carry over surplus assigned amount units (AAUs) without limit, but restrictions were imposed on their use and quantitative limits on acquisition from other Parties.

Completion of new infrastructure

In Doha, progress was made in finalizing new infrastructure to channel technology and finance to developing nations, moving towards its full implementation and support.

• Songdo, Republic of South Korea, became the host of the Green Climate Fund (GCF) and the work plan of the Standing Committee on Finance.
• A UNEP-led consortium was designated as the host of the Climate Technology Center (CTC) for an initial five-year term.
• The CTC, along with its associated Network, serves as the implementing arm of the UNFCCC Technology Mechanism. The constitution of the Climate Technology Center Network (CTCN) Advisory Board was also agreed upon by governments.

Warsaw Outcomes Cop 19 2013

Governments accelerated the timeline for developing the 2015 agreement.

• Nationally determined contributions would be presented transparently and clearly.

Closing the pre-2020 ambition gap

Governments committed to strengthening measures to close the "ambition gap" before the new agreement takes effect in 2020. The ambition gap refers to the disparity between current pledges and what is necessary to limit the global temperature increase to below a maximum average of 2 degrees Celsius.

Cutting emissions from deforestation - "the Warsaw Framework for REDD+":

*Governments reached agreements on strategies to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, acknowledging that global deforestation contributes to approximately 20 percent of CO2 emissions. The decisions aim to promote forest preservation and sustainable forest use, offering direct benefits to communities in and around forests. Additionally, the framework establishes a mechanism for results-based payments if developing countries demonstrate successful forest protection.

Progress towards accountability

 The framework for measuring, reporting, and verifying mitigation efforts, including those of developing countries, is now fully operational. This agreement is significant as it enables better measurement of countries' mitigation, sustainability, and support efforts.

Technology to boost action on climate change

The Climate Technology Center (CTCN), established in Cancun in 2010, has transitioned to the operational stage, ready to support developing countries based on their requests for technology-related assistance through their national designated entities.

Lima Outcomes Cop 20 2014

• The Lima Climate Conference marked significant milestones in the international climate process.
•  Pledges from both developed and developing countries, prior to and during COP, surpassed the initial $10 billion target for capitalizing the new Green Climate Fund (GCF).
• The Lima Ministerial Declaration on Education and Awareness-raising urged governments to incorporate climate change into school curricula and integrate climate awareness into national development plans.

Steps Forward on Adaptation

• Progress was achieved in elevating adaptation to the same level as the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, primarily through National Adaptation Plans (NAPs).
• The launch of the NAP Global Network, involving Peru, the US, Germany, the Philippines, Togo, the UK, Jamaica, and Japan, was a significant development.
• The Lima Adaptation Knowledge initiative, a pilot project in the Andes, highlighted the successful capture of adaptive needs in communities. The idea of replicating this initiative in Least Developed Countries, Small Island Developing States, and Africa gained support.

 More countries accepted the Kyoto Protocol Doha Amendment, with Nauru and Tuvalu submitting their instruments of acceptance. However, acceptance from 144 countries is required to bring it into force.

New climate action portal

Peru launched the Nazca Climate Action Portal with UNFCCC support, aiming to enhance the visibility of climate actions among cities, regions, companies, and investors, including those involved in international cooperative initiatives.

Lima Work Programme on Gender

The Lima conference established a Lima Work Programme on Gender to promote gender balance and sensitivity in developing and implementing climate policy.

UNFCCC NAMA Day

* A special event focused on actions to reduce emissions through "nationally appropriate mitigation actions" (NAMAs), plans of developing countries supported by developed countries. The UNFCCC secretariat set up a registry to match requests for and offers of support.

Climate action on the ground celebrated by the UN

The UNFCCC secretariat's Momentum for Change Initiative recognized outstanding climate solutions worldwide, including a new category for Information and Communication technology.

Paris Climate Change Conference Cop 21 2015

Objectives of the Paris Agreement:

• To keep the global average temperature increase well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels.
• To strive to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, acknowledging that this would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change.
• The Agreement emphasizes achieving the global peaking of emissions by the second half of the century, recognizing the extended timeline for developing country Parties.
  

Nationally determined contributions

• The Paris Agreement mandates all Parties to present their best efforts through "nationally determined contributions" (NDCs) and enhance these efforts over time. This includes regular reporting on emissions and implementation efforts. In 2018, Parties will assess collective progress and prepare for NDC updates. A global stocktake will occur every 5 years to evaluate progress toward the Agreement's purpose and guide further actions by Parties.
• The Paris Agreement became effective on November 4, 2016, with the first meeting of the Conference of the Parties serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA 1) held in Marrakech, Morocco, from November 15-18, 2016. By the close of the Marrakech conference, it had been ratified by 111 countries representing over three-fourths of global emissions.
•  While the agreement outlines parties' basic obligations and establishes new procedures and mechanisms, full operationalization requires further details, collectively known as the "Paris rulebook."

Article 6

Article 6 introduces three distinct mechanisms for "voluntary cooperation" towards climate goals. Two mechanisms are market-based, and a third is based on "non-market approaches." Article 6.2 governs bilateral cooperation through "internationally traded mitigation outcomes" (ITMOs), potentially including emissions cuts measured in CO₂ tonnes or renewable electricity kilowatt hours. Article 6.4 establishes a new international carbon market for trading emissions cuts created globally. Article 6.8 provides a formal framework for climate cooperation between countries without trade involvement, such as development aid.

Marrakech Climate Change Conference - Cop 22 2016

In addition to developing the Paris rulebook, parties took various actions and made announcements on several issues at the Marrakech Climate Conference in 2016.

Finance

The Paris Agreement mandates developed countries to provide biennial reports on financial support, including public interventions and future support projections. Discussions in Marrakech included considerations on how to account for public finance, questioning whether the accounting should apply only to flows from developed to developing countries or include broader flows of public finance.

Global Stocktake

Parties initiated discussions on structuring the global stocktake, covering format, inputs, timeline, duration, output, and its connection to other elements of the Paris architecture.

"Orphan" issues

A contentious matter in Marrakech involved addressing so-called "orphan" issues mentioned in the Paris Agreement but not assigned to any specific body for further consideration. These issues include common timeframes for NDCs, rules around NDC adjustment, and the development of a new collective finance goal post-2025. Parties tasked the APA with continued consideration of these matters.

Adaptation Fund

The fate of the Adaptation Fund established under the Kyoto Protocol was deliberated. While developed countries preferred channeling support through the Green Climate Fund, developing countries advocated for keeping the Adaptation Fund operational. Parties decided the fund should serve the Paris Agreement, pending governance and other decisions.

2018 Facilitative Dialogue

Anticipating the delayed enforcement of the Paris Agreement, parties planned an early stocktake through a facilitative dialogue in 2018. Consultations on organizing the dialogue were assigned to the COP 22 and COP 23 presidencies, with a report due at COP 24.

Mid-century Strategies

The Paris Agreement encourages countries to submit long-term low greenhouse gas emission development strategies. Canada, Germany, Mexico, and the United States were the first to submit mid-century strategies in Marrakech. The 2050 Pathway Platform was launched to assist other countries in developing their strategies.

Finance (Reiterated)

Developed countries presented a roadmap for mobilizing $100 billion annually in public and private finance for developing countries by 2020. The Standing Committee on Finance released its second biennial assessment, indicating a 15 percent increase in global climate finance in 2013-14, reaching an estimated $741 billion in 2014. New financial pledges were announced for the Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN), the Capacity-building Initiative for Transparency, and World Bank climate finance for the Middle East-North Africa region.

Loss and Damage

Parties conducted the first review of the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage, addressing unavoidable climate impacts. The mechanism, under the Paris Agreement, aims to help vulnerable countries cope with such impacts, with a review scheduled for 2019 and subsequent reviews on a five-year cycle, aligning with global stocktakes.

Bonn Climate Change Conference - Cop 23, 2017

* The UNFCCC’s COP23 in Bonn, Germany, in November 2017, was presided over by Fiji, making it the first small-island state to host the UNFCCC climate talks.

Koronivia Joint Work on Agriculture (KJWA)

 A significant decision reached at COP 23, acknowledging the importance of agriculture in adapting to and mitigating climate change. Countries agreed to collaborate on agricultural development, focusing on topics like soils, nutrient use, water, livestock, adaptation assessment methods, and socio-economic and food security aspects. KJWA is a three-year program concluding at COP 26 in Glasgow.

Powering Past Coal Alliance 

Launched in COP 23 and led by the UK and Canada, the alliance comprises over 20 members working towards clean growth and the rapid phase-out of traditional coal power. It advocates for a coal phase-out in the OECD and EU 28 by 2030 and no later than 2050 globally, aligning with the Paris Agreement. However, it does not specify signatories' commitments to particular phase-out dates or the cessation of financing unabated coal power stations, only restricting it.

Fiji’s COP Outcomes

• Gender Action Plan: Emphasizes women's role in climate action and promotes gender equality.
• Local Communities and Indigenous Peoples Platform: Aims to facilitate the exchange of experiences and best practices on mitigation and adaptation.
• Ocean Pathway Partnership: A two-track strategy supporting Paris Agreement goals, focusing on increasing the role of ocean considerations in the UNFCCC process and significantly enhancing action in priority areas influenced by the ocean and climate change.
• Talanoa Dialogue: A process designed for inclusive, participatory, and transparent dialogue to help countries implement and enhance their Nationally Determined Contributions by 2020. It involves storytelling and addresses three questions: Where are we? Where do we want to go? How do we get there? Originally known as the facilitative dialogue, it was renamed Talanoa Dialogue during the Fijian COP presidency in Bonn.
• InsuResilience Global Partnership: Launched at COP 23, it involves G20 countries, V20 nations, civil society, international organizations, the private sector, and academia. The partnership aims to enhance the resilience of developing countries, protecting lives and livelihoods from disaster impacts through faster, more reliable, and cost-effective responses. The goal is to increase the number of beneficiaries from direct or indirect insurance by up to 400 million by 2020.

COP 25, 2019

•  The United Nations Climate Change Conference COP 25 in 2019 was held in Madrid, Spain, under the Presidency of Chile.
• Originally planned for Chile, the COP 25 was relocated to Madrid due to violent mass movements across the country.
• The main goal of COP 25 was to finalize the rulebook for the 2015 Paris Agreement, which would become effective in 2020, replacing the 1997 Kyoto Protocol ending in the same year.
• Unfortunately, countries could not reach agreement on several anticipated outcomes, including rules for establishing a global carbon trading system and a mechanism for directing new finance (loss and damage) to nations impacted by climate change. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, COP 26, initially scheduled for 2020, was postponed to November 2021, with the completion of the rulebook expected in that session.

Major Outcomes

• The Paris Agreement emphasizes the avoidance of double counting of carbon credits. This means that a country selling emissions cuts through offsetting credits to another country cannot simultaneously count those cuts toward its own climate targets. However, consensus on this matter is pending, with Australia, Brazil, and a few others expressing disagreement.
•  A new five-year gender action plan, originally agreed upon in COP 20 Lima, aims to support the implementation of gender-related decisions and mandates in the UNFCCC process.
• The Climate Ambition Alliance (CAA), led by Chile, was launched at the Climate Action Summit in New York in 2019. At COP 25, 73 countries joined the alliance, aiming to enhance their 2020 targets and achieve Net Zero Carbon Emissions by 2050. The alliance focuses on resilience in infrastructure, water management, and city sustainability. It also emphasizes Nationally Determined Contributions as part of the strategy to reach Net Zero by 2050. The European Union (EU) committed to a "climate neutral" target for 2050, aligning itself with the CAA.

Glasgow COP 26 Outcomes

• Countries are required to review and enhance their climate commitments by the end of 2022.
•  The agreement calls for a "phasedown" of coal and the elimination of inefficient fossil fuel subsidies.
•  Initiates processes to achieve a global goal on adaptation, increased climate finance, and funding for loss and damage.
•  Wealthier nations fell short of meeting the $100 billion annual climate finance target for 2020. The pact urges them to urgently meet the target through 2025.
•  Regarding the streamlining of the timeframe for Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC), the agreement encourages parties to communicate their INDCs, ending in 2035 in 2025, ending in 2040 in 2030, and so forth every five years thereafter.
•  Global stocktake: The COP of UNFCCC will periodically assess mitigation, adaptation, and the "means of implementation and support," such as finance. The first stocktake is scheduled for 2023.
•  Deforestation pledges:
  1. Over 130 countries signed a declaration on forest and land use, committing to collectively halt and reverse forest loss and land degradation by 2030.
  2. The UK and Indonesia jointly lead a Forest, Agriculture, and Commodity Trade initiative to support sustainable trade between producing and consuming countries.
  
• Global Methane pledge, led by the US and the European Commission, urges countries to reduce methane emissions by 30% over 2020-2030.
•  Global coal to clean power transition statement: 23 nations committed to phasing out and refraining from building or investing in new coal power domestically and internationally.
• Accelerating the transition to 100% zero-emission cars and vans: Although not legally binding, the coalition aims to work towards all new cars and vans being zero-emission globally by 2040 and by no later than 2035 in leading markets.
•  Glasgow Financial Alliance for Net Zero (GFANZ): Committed $130 trillion toward the net-zero transition. Signatories must commit to science-based guidelines for achieving net-zero carbon emissions by 2050 and provide 2030 interim goals.
• Beyond Oil and Gas Alliance: Aims to deliver a managed and just transition away from oil and gas production, led by Denmark and Costa Rica, with core members including France, Greenland, Ireland, Quebec, Sweden, and Wales.
• Article 6 (referring to COP 21): Rules for Article 6 of the Paris Agreement concerning carbon markets and voluntary international cooperation were agreed upon in Glasgow. Parties agreed to the carryover of carbon credits since 2013, bringing up to 320 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent into the Paris mechanism. The agreement closes the double counting of carbon emission cuts and excludes the use of credits from historical deforestation avoidance.

Sharm El-Sheikh COP 27 Outcomes

Major outcomes

• The COP27 has approved the creation of a "Loss and Damage" fund to assist nations vulnerable to climate-related losses. Additionally, a new five-year work program has been introduced to promote climate technology solutions in developing nations.
• In the field of mitigation, a work program aims to rapidly increase efforts to mitigate climate change. This program will run until 2030, featuring at least two global dialogues each year. Governments are urged to review and strengthen their 2030 climate targets within their national plans by the end of 2023, alongside accelerating efforts to reduce coal power and phase out inefficient fossil fuel subsidies.
  
• Delegates at COP27 have concluded the second technical dialogue of the inaugural global stocktake, a mechanism aimed at raising climate ambition as per the Paris Agreement. Before the stocktake's completion at COP28 the following year, a 'climate ambition summit' will be convened in 2023 by the UN Secretary-General.
• The Sharm-El-Sheikh Adaptation Agenda outlines 30 Adaptation Outcomes to strengthen resilience for the 4 billion people living in the most climate-vulnerable communities by 2030.
• The Action on Water Adaptation and Resilience Initiative (AWARe) has been launched to address the significance of water in both climate change challenges and solutions.
• The African Carbon Market Initiative (ACMI) aims to support carbon credit production and job creation in Africa.
• The establishment of the Global Renewables Alliance brings together all the necessary technologies for the energy transition, aiming not only to achieve targets but also to position renewable energy as a pillar of sustainable development and economic growth.

Other Mechanisms of UNFCCC

1. Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF)

•  The Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF), established in 2001 under the Convention, finances projects related to adaptation, technology transfer, capacity building, energy, transport, industry, agriculture, forestry, waste management, and economic diversification.
•  The Global Environment Facility (GEF) operates the SCCF as an operating entity of the financial mechanism.
  

2. Finance Mechanism for Climate Change

• Financial resources available to Non-Annex I Parties to the UNFCCC include three modules:
• The "National Communications Module" presents information communicated by Annex II Parties regarding financial resources for Convention implementation through their fourth and fifth national communications.

Fast-Start Finance

• Developed countries pledged during COP15 in Copenhagen (December 2009) to provide new and additional resources, approximately USD 30 billion for 2010-2012, with a balanced allocation between mitigation and adaptation.
• COP16 in Cancun (December 2010) acknowledged this collective commitment and prioritized adaptation funding for the most vulnerable developing countries, including the least developed countries, small island developing States, and Africa.
• COP17 welcomed the fast-start finance provided by developed countries for the period 2010-2012, urged enhanced transparency in reporting, and noted information on the fulfillment of fast-start finance commitments.
• The "Funds Managed by the GEF Module" is a collaboration between the UNFCCC secretariat and the GEF secretariat. It presents information on financial flows channeled, mobilized, and leveraged by the GEF as an operating entity of the UNFCCC Financial Mechanism.

REDD & REDD+

 REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) is a global effort to incentivize developing countries to protect, manage, and preserve their forest resources, contributing to the global fight against climate change.

• REDD+ extends beyond curtailing deforestation and degradation, encompassing positive incentives for conservation, sustainable forest management, and improvement of forest carbon stocks.
•  REDD+ envisions providing positive incentives for demonstrated reductions in deforestation or improvements in the quality and extent of forest cover.
• It establishes a financial value for carbon stored and enhanced in biomass and soil of standing forests. Countries reducing emissions and practicing sustainable forest management are eligible for funds andb as incentives.
• The REDD+ approach includes benefits such as livelihood improvement, biodiversity conservation, and food security services.
  

Will India Benefit from REDD+?

• India's ongoing efforts to conserve and expand its forest and tree resources may be rewarded for providing carbon services globally. Incentives received from REDD+ would support local communities engaged in forest protection and management, ensuring sustained forest preservation.
• A REDD+ program for India is estimated to capture over 1 billion tonnes of additional CO2 over the next three decades, providing more than USD 3 billion in carbon service incentives.

India's Position on REDD And REDD+

• India emphasizes viewing REDD in the broader context of REDD+, treating deforestation reduction and forest conservation and improvement as equally important. This stance was accepted in the 13th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP 13) at Bali.
• India presents an ambitious Green India Mission program under its National Action Plan on Climate Change.

India Initiatives Related to REDD+

• India submitted a proposal to UNFCCC on "REDD, Sustainable Management of Forest (SMF), and Afforestation and Reforestation (A&R)" in December 2008.
• A Technical Group has been formed to develop methodologies and procedures for assessing and monitoring the contribution of REDD+ actions.
• A National REDD+ Coordinating Agency is in the process of establishment.
• A National Forest Carbon Accounting Programme is being institutionalized.
• India hosted the Conference of Parties (COP-11) of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 2012.
• A study on the impact of climate change on India's forests, assigned to the Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment (INCCA), was released in November 2010.

The Gef

• Article 11 of the UNFCCC establishes a 'financial mechanism' for convention implementation, guided by the UNFCCC COP and accountable to the COP.
• Article 11(1) grants the COP the authority to decide on policies, program priorities, and eligibility criteria for the financial mechanism concerning the convention.
• Article 21 designates the Global Environment Facility (GEF) to serve as the interim financial mechanism.
  
• The GEF was created in 1991 by the World Bank in consultation with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to offer funding for global environmental protection.
• The GEF's governance, operational, financial, and administrative oversight procedures are outlined in the Instrument for the Establishment of the Restructured Global Environment Facility, adopted in 1994 and later amended in 2002 (GEF Instrument).
• The GEFcurrently focuses on six areas:
  • Biological diversity;
  • Climate change;
  • International waters;
  • Land degradation, primarily desertification and deforestation;
  • Ozone layer depletion; and
  • Persistent organic pollutants.

Global Climate Finance Architecture

• The global climate finance architecture is directed through multilateral funds like the Global Environment Facility and the Climate Investment Funds, and increasingly through bilateral channels.

Strategic Climate Fund

• Administered by the World Bank
• Area of focus - Adaptation, Mitigation - general, Mitigation - REDD
• Date operational - 2008

The Strategic Climate Fund (SCF), part of the Climate Investment Funds (CIFs), oversees programs focusing on Forest Investment, Climate Resilience, and Scaling Up Renewable Energy.

Forest Investment Program

• Administered by The World Bank
• Area of focus - Mitigation - REDD
• Date operational - 2009

The Forest Investment Program (FIP) aids developing countries in reducing deforestation and promoting sustainable forest management, leading to emission reductions and carbon protection.

Biocarbon Fund

• Administered by The World Bank
• Area of focus - Adaptation, Mitigation - general, Mitigation - REDD
• Date operational - 2004

Least Developed Countries Fund

• Administered by The Global Environment Facility (GEF)
• Area of focus - Adaptation
• Date operational - 2002

Green Climate Fund

• Administered by - to be confirmed
• Area of focus - Adaptation, Mitigation - general, Mitigation - REDD
• Date operational - 2015

UN-REDD Programme

• Administered by UNDP
• Area of focus - Mitigation - REDD
• Date operational - 2008

Adaptation for Smallholder Agriculture Program

• Administered by the International Fund for Agricultural Development
• Area of focus - Adaptation
• Date operational - 2012

Amazon Fund (Fundo Amazonia)

• Administered by Brazilian Development Bank (BNDES)
• Area of focus - Mitigation - REDD
• Date operational - 2009

Congo Basin Forest Fund

• Administered by African Development Bank
• Area of focus - Mitigation - REDD
• Date operational - 2008

Indonesia Climate Change Trust Fund

• Administered by Indonesia’s National Development Planning Agency
• Area of focus - Adaptation, Mitigation - general, Mitigation - REDD
• Date operational - 2010

One Planet Summit

• At least 50 countries committed to protecting 30% of the planet, including land and sea, over the next decade to halt species extinction and address climate change issues.
• The summit launched a program called PREZODE, an international initiative to prevent the emergence of zoonotic diseases and pandemics.

Petersberg Climate Dialogue

• Petersberg Climate Dialogue, hosted by Germany, serves as a forum for high-level political discussions on international climate negotiations and climate action advancement.
• The virtual XI Petersberg Climate Dialogue, co-chaired by Germany and the United Kingdom, addressed post-COVID-19 economic recovery and climate action, especially for the vulnerable.