Nitin Singhania Summary: Indian Cinema | Nitin Singhania: Indian Art & Culture (Summary & Tests) - UPSC PDF Download
Introduction
India has one of the largest film industries in Asia, employing thousands in various roles like actors, music directors, extras, and spot boys. It's renowned for producing the largest number of films in the world, spanning languages such as Hindi, Telugu, Tamil, and Bhojpuri.
In 2014, India created nearly 3000 films, including about 1000 short films and 1969 feature films.
History of Indian Cinema
Recently, a significant change occurred as full Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) was allowed in the film sector. This attracted major international media houses like 20th Century Fox, Warner Bros., etc., to invest in Indian films. Consequently, foreign directors are now taking on socio-cultural issues relevant to India.
International Media Houses
Importance of Indian Cinema
Post-independence films in India have significantly influenced our national identity and how individuals perceive themselves in the country.
These movies play a crucial role in depicting and understanding the socio-economic and political realities of Indian life, showcasing how things have changed over time.
Empirical studies indicate that films deeply impact the common man's mindset. People connect with the main characters, empathizing with their stories as if they were real.
Movies are not just a source of entertainment for a few hours; they become a part of people's lives, something they carry with them.
Indian parallel cinemaThere are generally two types of cinema: one for entertainment and another for portraying the realities of day-to-day life, known as 'alternate' or 'parallel' cinema. This cinematic influence is not confined to urban areas; it has extended to rural regions and smaller cities, making it a widespread cultural phenomenon.
History of Indian Cinema
Lumiere Brothers
Lumiere Brothers, known as the inventors of the Cinematograph, introduced motion pictures to India by showing six silent short films in Bombay in 1896.
The first film shown was "Coconut Fair & Our Indian Empire," shot by an unknown photographer in 1897.
Italian duo Colorello & Cornaglia organized an exhibition in tents at Azad Maidan in Bombay. In 1898, several short films like "The Death of Nelson," "Call on the London Fire Brigade," & "Noah’s Ark" were exhibited in Bombay.
Harishchandra BhatvadekarThe first Indian to venture into motion pictures was Harishchandra Bhatvadekar, also known as Save Dada. He made two short films in 1899 and showcased them using the Edison Projecting Kinetoscope.
In the 1900s, notable Indian filmmaker F.B Thanawalla made films like "Taboot Procession" & "Splendid New Views of Bombay."
Hiralal Sen, with his "Indian Life and Scenes," contributed to filmmaking in 1903.
Hiralal SenMajor Warwick established the first cinema house in Madras in 1900.
Wealthy Indian businessman Jamshedjee Madan founded Elphinstone Picture House in Calcutta in 1907.
Universal StudiosUniversal Studios, the first Hollywood-based agency in India, was established in 1916.
The Era of Silent Films
From 1910 to 1920, silent films dominated the cinema landscape. Despite being called silent, they featured music and dance, accompanied by live instruments like sarangi, tabla, harmonium, and violin when shown in theaters.
The first collaboration between India and Britain for a silent movie occurred in 1912 by N.G Chitre and R. G Torney. Their film was titled "Pundalik."
Dadasaheb Phalke In 1913, Dadasaheb Phalke produced the first indigenous Indian silent film, "Raja Harishchandra." He is considered the father of Indian cinema and is credited with films like "Mohini Bhasmasur" and "Satyavan Savitri." He also made the first box office hit, "Lanka Dahan," in 1917.
Dadasaheb Phalke had two film companies, Kohinoor Film Company and Hindustan Cinema Films Company. As films began to make money, the government imposed an 'Entertainment tax' in Calcutta in 1922 and the next year in Bombay.
This era provided opportunities for filmmakers like Baburao Painter, Suchet Singh, and V. Shantaram.
- In the early days of Indian cinema, filmmakers explored various subjects. The most popular ones were mythology and history because stories from the past had a strong appeal to the audience.Amar Jyoti Film Poster
- Some writers and directors also focused on social issues. For example, V. Shantaram made a film called "Amar Jyoti," addressing women's emancipation. However, during this time, there were very few notable women filmmakers. Fatima Begum was the first Indian woman to produce and direct her own film in 1926, titled "Bulbul-e-Parastan."Some of the Outstanding works
- The first film controversy related to censorship emerged with the film "Bhakta Vidhur," which was banned in Madras in 1921.
- Additionally, there were international collaborations during this period. One popular movie made in collaboration with Italy was "Madan’s Nala Damayanti." Himanshu Ray, who directed successful films like "A Throw of Dice" and "Prem Sanyas," received sponsorship from Indo-German sources.
The Epoch of Talkies
The first talking film in India was "Alam Ara," produced by the Imperial Film Company and directed by Ardeshir Irani. It premiered at Majestic Cinema in Bombay in 1931. This film featured memorable songs by W.M. Khan, India’s first singer, and his song "De de khuda ke naam par" was the first recorded song in Indian cinematic history.
W.M. Khan (Wazir Muhammad Khan)While talkie films replaced silent films, they faced technical challenges in the 1930s. Due to the absence of pre-recording facilities, movies lacked dialogue writers, and songs had to be sung during filming. Singers were hidden behind actors, and minimal musical instruments were used. Despite these difficulties, serious filmmaking gained prominence by the late thirties.
In the late thirties, major film banners like Bombay Talkies, New Theatres, and Prabhat emerged, contributing to the development of the Studio System. The first film to use this system in 1935 was P.C Barua’s "Devdas." Production houses started experimenting with film content and production styles.
This experimentation led to the introduction of color films like "Sairandhri" by Prabhat in 1933, recognized as the first Indian color film, although it was processed and printed in Germany. Notably, "Kisan Kanya," produced by Ardashir Irani in 1937, holds the distinction of being the first indigenously made color film.
Some distinctive filmsWar Raged 1940s
The 1940s marked a period of political turmoil in India, influencing films of that time. Movies like "Dharti ke Lal" and "Do Aankhen Baarah Haath" reflected the fervor for independence. Despite post-independence challenges, the film industry continued to grow significantly.
Films in the forties often focused on tragic love stories and fictional historical tales such as "Chandralekha," "Laila Majnu," "Sikander," and "Chitralekha."
Addressing social issues, notable productions included Chetan Anand’s "Neecha Nagar," Mehboob's "Aurat," and Sohrab Modi's "Pukar."
V. Shantaram, a highly skilled lyricist, played a prominent role during this period, creating classic films like "Dr. Kotnis ki Atma Katha," "Pinjra," "Padosi," and "Geet Gaya Patharo Ne."
A significant development was the establishment of RK Films by the Kapoor family in 1948. Their production house was launched with the screening of their first film titled "Aag."
Coming of Age -1950s
In the 1950s, Indian cinema underwent significant changes with the establishment of the Central Board of Film Certification to regulate content in the growing number of films from North and South India.
This period saw the rise of iconic 'film stars' such as Dilip Kumar, Dev Anand, and Raj Kapoor, achieving widespread fame.
The first technicolor film in 1953, titled "Jhansi Ki Rani," was made by Sohrab Modi.
International film festivals, particularly the inaugural International Film Festival of India (IFFI) in Bombay in 1952, marked India as a noteworthy destination in the global cinematic landscape.
"Do Bigha Zameen" by Bimal Roy and "Pather Panchali" by Satyajit Ray won accolades at the Cannes Film Festival. "Mother India" received an Oscar nomination in 1957.
Reflecting global trends, the Government of India introduced the National Film Awards. The first award went to the feature film titled "Shyamchi Aai." The best short film award was given to "Mahabalipuram." The initial film to win the President’s Gold Medal was "Mirza Ghalib," directed by Sohrab Modi in 1954.
| 1954 | S.K Ojha | Naaz | First film to shoot at foreign locations |
| 1957 | K. A. Abbas | Pardesi | First Indo-Soviet collaboration |
| 1958 | Guru Dutt | Kagaz Ke Phool | First Indian film in Cinemascope |
Other distinguished films
The Golden Era - 1960s
In the 1960s, music became a crucial part of movies, with many films using it as their unique selling point (USP). Some notable examples include "Jis Desh Main Ganga Behti Hai," featuring Raj Kapoor, "Guide" starring Dev Anand, and Yash Chopra’s "Waqt."
- This period also saw two wars in 1962 and 1965, which became the theme of several patriotic films. Notable among them were Chetan Anand’s "Haqeeqat," Shakti Samanta’s "Aradhana" starring Rajesh Khanna, and Raj Kapoor’s "Sangam." These movies gained cult status.
- With the film industry firmly established, there was a need for an institution to train people involved in the complex film-making process. This led to the government establishing the Film and Television Institute of India (FTII) in Pune in 1960. This institute trained writers, directors, and actors in their craft.
- In 1969, the influential figure in Indian cinema and theater, Dadasaheb Phalke, passed away. To honor his legacy, the Dadasaheb Phalke Award for lifetime achievement was instituted.
The ‘Angry Young Man’ Phase - 1970-80
During this period, the focus of filmmaking was on stories about young individuals navigating life in industrial Bombay. The successful formula was to create 'rags to riches' tales, allowing people to live their dreams on screen. Amitabh Bachchan became the face of these movies, marking the 'era of Amitabh Bachchan.' His hit films include "Zanjeer," "Agnipath," "Amar Akbar and Anthony," and more.
Another significant genre during this time was horror movies, pioneered by the Ramsay Brothers with films like "Do Gaz Zameen ke Neeche." The Censor Board coined the term 'B-grade' movies for this genre, which often combined horror with erotic elements. There was also a surge in religious films centered on the lives of deities, such as "Jai Santoshi Maa."
A noteworthy film from this era is the classic "Sholay," the first to be made on a 70 mm scale. It shattered records, holding the record for the longest-running film in cinemas until the 1990s. Kaifi Azmi and Javed Akhtar wrote the screenplay and dialogues for this iconic movie. They collaborated on several successful projects, including the adaptation of a Punjabi love story titled "Heer Ranjha," where Kaifi Azmi became the first to write an entire film in rhyming lyrics.
The phase of Romantic Cinema -1980-2000
From the 1980s onward, Indian cinema underwent rapid changes. Movies addressing social issues, along with romantic and family dramas, gained immense popularity. Key actors during this period included Anil Kapoor, Jackie Shroff, and Govinda, featuring in blockbuster films like "Tezaab," "Ram Lakhan," "Phool Aur Kaante," and "Hum."
In the late '80s, the 'antihero' emerged through films like "Baazigar" and "Darr," launching the stardom of Shah Rukh Khan.
The 1990s brought about Liberalization, Globalization, and Privatization (LPG), leading to increased access to films and television. This influx of money from foreign companies revolutionized the industry, with a demand for films depicting the rich urban youth. Filmmakers like Aditya Chopra, known for "Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge" and "Dil To Pagal Hai," capitalized on this trend. This era marked the rise of the second triumvirate dominating Bollywood - Shahrukh Khan, Salman Khan, and Aamir Khan.
LPG also brought advanced technology to India. "My Dear Kuttichatan" became India’s first 3D movie, dubbed in Hindi as "Chhota Chetan." The Dolby sound system was introduced to Indian audiences through "1942-A Love Story" by Vidhu Vinod Chopra.
In the current decade, the industry has diversified into various subjects. International collaborations by filmmakers like Gurinder Chadha and Shekhar Kapur have resulted in films like "Bend it Like Beckham," "Bride and Prejudice," and "Elizabeth." Filmmakers like Imtiaz Ali, Raju Hirani, Sanjay Leela Bhansali, and Karan Johar dominate the scene. A new wave of actors, not conventionally considered good looking but with exceptional acting skills, includes Irfan Khan and Nawazuddin Siddiqui.
The Parallel Cinema
Since the late 1940s, there has been another kind of film industry that makes important movies, even if they don't make a lot of money. This started more in local cinemas with a movie called "Bhuvan Shome" in 1969. After that, there was a lot of focus on making movies that are artistic and show a human perspective, different from the more fantasy-based popular movies.
The reasons for these different movies in India were influenced by global trends after World War II, where movies started showing more realistic and human stories. This was seen in Indian movies like "Mother India" and "Shree 420." There were also more places to learn about movies, like the National Film Archive of India (NFAI) and the Film and Television Institute of India (FTII). As India became more known for international film festivals, Indian directors got ideas from global trends.
One important person in this different kind of cinema was Satyajit Ray, who made movies like "Pather Panchali," "Apur Sansar," and "Aparajito." These movies got praised worldwide. Another important filmmaker was Ritwik Ghatak, who focused on issues faced by the lower middle-class in movies like "Nagarik," "Aajantrik," and "Meghe Dhaka Tara."
In the 1980s, these different movies started talking more about the role of women. Some famous women directors during this time were Sai Paranjpye (movies like "Chasme Baddoor" and "Sparsh"), Kalpana Lajmi ("Ek Pal"), and Aparna Sen ("36 Chowringhee Lane").
One of them, Meera Nair, got famous globally when her movie "Salaam Bombay" won the Golden Cannes Award in 1989. These movies often talked about how the role of women was changing in our society.
Role of Women in Indian Cinema
The way movies depict women has changed over time. In silent movies, the focus was on the limits placed on a woman's life.
- From 1920 to 1940, directors like V. Shantaram, Dhiren Ganguli, and Baburao Painter made movies about women's issues, like stopping child marriages and ending sati.
- As time passed, movies started supporting ideas like allowing widows to remarry, promoting women's education, and giving equal rights to women in the workplace.
- From 1960 to 1980, movies had a stereotypical view of women. They often portrayed the heroine as someone who glorifies motherhood, stays loyal to her family, and makes extreme sacrifices.
- In contrast, there was the 'anti-heroine' or vamp, shown as someone who drinks, has affairs with married men, and acts cruel or unscrupulous.
- In parallel cinema, directors like Satyajit Ray, Ritwik Ghatak, Guru Dutt, Shyam Bengal, focused on women's liberation, depicting the life of an Indian woman.
- Today, movies are experimenting with the image of a 'modern' woman who works, manages a career and a family, and is still trying to find her own way.
South Indian Cinema
South Indian cinema includes Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, and Tulu (Coastal Karnataka) film industries.
In 2010, 723 films were produced in South Indian languages, making it a significant part of Indian cinema.Telugu and Tamil films are the largest industries, catering to both local and international audiences.
South Indian cinema draws inspiration from literature, mythology, and folklore for its themes.
- Telugu cinema often produces movies based on mythological themes, with actors like N.T. Rama Rao portraying iconic characters.
- Kannada and Tamil films also explore mythological stories, with legendary actors like Rajkumar leaving a mark in the industry.
- South Indian cinema addresses socio-economic issues, including corruption, power imbalances, unemployment, dowry, and violence against women.
- Films from the 1940s-1960s had political influences and were used for propaganda.
- Themes in South Indian movies cover love, revenge, crimes, family dramas, and the eternal battle between good and evil.
- The traditional classification of characters, including heroes, heroines, villains, and clowns, still persists, but strong female characters are now portrayed.
- Notable superstars in South Indian cinema include M.G. Ramachandran, NT Rama Rao, Shivaji Ganesan, Rajkumar, Vishnuvardhan, Rajinikanth, Thilakan, Prem Nazir, Mohan Lal, Kamal Hasan, Mammootty, Ajith Kumar, Chiranjeevi, Mahesh Babu, Joseph Vijay, and many more.
Recent Film Controversies
- In 1994, Shekhar Kapoor made a controversial movie called Bandit Queen, which was banned by the Censor Board due to nudity and obscene content.
- Deepa Mehta's film Water, depicting the lives of widows in the 1930s, faced controversy and was banned in various cinema halls in India.
- Another movie by Deepa Mehta titled Fire (1996), showing 'unnatural' lesbian relations, was banned by the Censor Board, and the director and actresses received death threats from extremist groups.
- Madras Cafe, focusing on the Sri Lankan Civil War, was banned in Sri Lanka and parts of the United Kingdom, facing criticism from the Sri Lankan government.
- Anurag Kashyap, another director, has been involved in controversies. His film Paanch was banned due to drug abuse, violence, and obscene language. Black Friday, based on the Mumbai bomb blasts, faced legal challenges but was eventually released in limited theaters.
- Some movies have been banned by the Government of India for hurting religious sentiments, like Baba Ram Rahim's Messenger of God and Kamal Haasan's Vishwaroopam.
- Parzania (2005), addressing the Gujarat riots, won a National Award but was not screened in Gujarat and faced restrictions in other parts of India.
- The role of the Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC or Censor Board) has been scrutinized. Issues include the appointment of officials and their adherence to a particular ideology. There are concerns about defining taste, morality, and public sentiment, and calls for greater transparency in its functioning to support artistic creativity and freedom in a vibrant democracy.
Indian Cinematograph Act of 1952
- The Government of India enacted the Indian Cinematograph Act, 1952 to regulate film certification through the Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC), known as the ‘Censor Board of India.’
- The Act mandates the appointment of a Chairman and a team (not less than 12 and not more than 25) by the Central Government to assist the Chairman.
- The Board's key role is to assess films and decide whether they should be exhibited, considering factors like offense to specific geographical areas, age groups, religious denominations, or political groups.
- The Board can direct the film applicant to make modifications or excisions in the film before issuing a certificate. Failure to make these changes may lead to the Board refusing approval for public exhibition.
- While film certification falls under the Central Government, the actual implementation of censorship in their respective regions is the responsibility of the State governments.
Certification is done according to the above tableCensorship in India
The organization responsible for film censorship in India is the Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC), established in 1950 and later renamed under the 1952 Act. It operates under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.
- While its main office is in Mumbai, CBFC has regional offices in Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Guwahati, Cuttack, Thiruvananthapuram, and Hyderabad, which handle regional films.
- CBFC issues certificates necessary for films to be screened in cinemas, including regional and foreign films. Even films dubbed into different languages require a new certificate to ensure language changes are not offensive.
- Notably, films made exclusively for Doordarshan (official broadcaster for the Government of India) and television programs and serials do not require CBFC certification.
- The CBFC is a structured organization with a Chairman and governing members appointed by the government, often from the film industry or other intellectual backgrounds.
- In case of disagreements between filmmakers and CBFC, there are two-tier committees - the Examining Committee and the Revising Committee - that can be approached.
- A special committee, the Shyam Benegal Committee, was formed in 2016 by the Government of India to establish norms for film certification, taking global best practices into account and allowing sufficient space for artistic expression.
- Major highlights of the report:
(a) The scope of CBFC should be restricted to categorizing the suitability of film to audience groups based on age & maturity.
(b) Stated that the Board, including the Chairman, should only play the role of a guiding mechanism for CBFC & not be involved in day-to-day affairs of certification.
(c) Online submission of applications as well as simplification of forms & accompanying documentation.
(d) Recertification of a film should be permitted.
(e) Categorization of films should be more specific & apart from U category, UA Category can be broken up into further subcategories - UA12+ & UA15+. The A category should also be subdivided into A and AC (Adult with Caution) categories.Does India need a National Film Policy
India, with the world's largest film industry, should consider having a national film policy due to its significant contribution to the country's GDP and the massive production of over a thousand movies annually.
- The film industry is growing rapidly, but the content is tightly regulated by the government through the Censor Board. There is a need for a balanced approach where the government's intervention allows for sustained growth.
- Regional cinema often takes a backseat, and a policy is essential to bring it on par with mainstream Hindi cinema.
- To promote the art of filmmaking and photography, there should be an emphasis on teaching these skills, with the establishment of more film schools modeled after FTII (Film and Television Institute of India).
- A national film policy can guide the global promotion of Indian cinema in the right direction.
- Incentives for the digitization of content can be ensured through a national film policy.
- Given the prevalent issue of internet piracy, the policy should include amendments to prohibit piracy, with strict punitive and monetary actions against offenders for effective deterrence.
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