Notes: Post independence - 1 | Post Independence History for UPSC Mains PDF Download

Colonial Legacy 

• Colonialism and capitalism led to the complex integration of colonies into the world economy in a subservient manner. Indian raw material was cheaply exported, and finished goods were expensively imported, which also destroyed domestic industries, handicrafts and handlooms. 
• Ruined artisans failed to find alternative employment and crowded agriculture as sharecroppers and labourers. Modern industries that were developed were guided by colonial interest, and they were also stunted in their growth. 
• They couldn't even replace the erstwhile homegrown cottage industries, handlooms and handicrafts. Before 1900, cotton, jute and tea dominated before the 1930s; cement, sugar and paper dominated. Hallmark of backwardness of Indian industry was the virtual absence of capital goods, and machinery industry and equipment were largely imported. 
• Further, industrial development was highly uneven in the spread. The modern industry contributed a meagre 8% of national income at the time of independence. Similarly, electricity and banking were also grossly ignored.

This subservient and disadvantaged position led to extremely poor domestic savings - less than 3% of GNP than 33% today. Even this chunk of savings was misappropriated by the colonial rulers in the form of the economic drain, military and administrative spending. From 1890 to 1947, military spending amounted to 50% of the total government budget. State support to industries was zero in contrast to most of the European countries at that time. While free trade was established with India, no tariff protection was given to the fledgeling Indian industry, which was done aggressively at home. Similarly, currency policy was manipulated in colonial favour.

• Further, the tax structure was highly iniquitous, as peasantry was heavily taxed and upper class like bureaucrats, landlords etc., paid hardly any tax. In 1900, land revenue alone contributed more than 50% of government revenues and salt tax another 16%. 
• As a result, inadequate investment and lack of modernization of agriculture lead to imperfect produce and stagnation. Moneylenders, landlords and intermediaries made the situation worse, and they too find the exploitation of sharecroppers, tenants and labourers easier than investing in agriculture. 
• Prime agricultural land was diverted to commercial crops leading to problems of food security as well. At the time of independence, 70% of the land was with landlords, and landlessness was at a historic high level of 28%. Landholdings had fragmented to uneconomical sizes.
• Better means of communication like railways were used not for the development of hinterlands but to make inroads for exports of rural goods. Railway freights rates were discriminatory and discouraged internal movement of goods, and promoted external trade. India suffered many famines despite good connectivity. Last major famine was Bengal famine of 1943, which took toll of more than 30 lakh lives.
• Another hallmark of backwardness was the high proportion of rural populations that stood at more than 80% at the time of independence. Dependency on agriculture increased from 67% in 1901 to more than 70% in 1947.

Education was also underdeveloped, and technical education was even worse, with only 7 engineering colleges at the time of independence. Similarly, health facilities were also inadequate, and there were just ten medical colleges by 1947, and epidemics were a regular phenomenon. Life expectancy was hardly 30 years. The medium of higher education was English throughout the country. It stifled local languages development and created a gulf between educated intelligentsia minority and unlettered masses, creating a social divide. Learning by rote was promoted at the expense of rational inquiry. Mass education and girls' education were grossly neglected.

• By 1947, almost 50% of bureaucrats were Indians, but non- Indians still covered top positions. Further, the bureaucracy was replete with elite class and caste and posed a significant challenge in desired social change after independence with its rigid and conservative outlook. 
• Though ICS officers were broadly upright, lower-level officials were notoriously corrupt, and corruption reached great heights during the Second World War. The government tried to increase control and taxes. It led to massive black-marketing and corruption.
• There were some positive features of colonial rule, as well. Communication means were well developed. Indian capitalist class also grew after 1914, and by the end of the Second World War, more than 60% of industry was driven by Indian capital. 
• Indian capitalist class was more enterprising and took bold steps after 1914. Similarly, Indian capital had also made significant inroads in the banking and insurance sector.

Further, colonial rule also established the modern principle of 'the rule of law'. The judiciary was also relatively independent even though the judicial system was expensive and detrimental to the poor. For a long time, judicial and administrative functions were not separated, and bureaucracy wielded enormous power. Several liberties were also extended, and the press was also modernized. Constitutional reforms were started after 1857, though real power vested with colonial powers. Only 3% of Indians were able to vote by 1919 and just 15% by 1939. British also led administrative unification of India and through a uniform educational, judicial and civil structure they achieved the union of India. But paradoxically, they simultaneously pursued their divide and rule policy, which culminated in participation and communalization of Indian society.

Just a few months before his death, Thakur Rabindranath wrote in 1941 'The wheels of fate will someday compel the English to give up their empire. But what kind of India will they leave behind, what stark misery? When the stream of their centuries' administration run dry at last, what a waste of mud and filth will they leave behind them'.

Legacy of National Movement

India derived its political and economic structure primarily from colonial rule. However, values and ideals were distinctively derived from the national movement, and they still serve as political and ethical benchmarks for the vast population.

• Indian national movement was an inclusive one accommodating broad ideological viewpoints. It was mostly non-violent and included not only the elite leadership but masses also. 
• Ideas of civil liberties, democratic organization and tolerance were taught during the national movement. 
• Masses had already starting appreciating ideals of liberty and democracy due to mass involvement, active debate and, hence, were ready to utilize adult franchise soon after independence.

Congress, when founded in 1885, as organized on democratic lines. It vouched for the liberty of the press and individual freedom and called for broader parliamentary reforms. Tilak proclaimed 'liberty of the press and liberty of speech give birth to a nation and nourish it'. It had an accommodative approach and dissent was encouraged and listened to.

• Their all-Indianess and call marked it and other organizations for a unified nation. There was an acknowledgement of common goal, and a diverse group always supported each other in time of crisis. Moderates defended extremist Tilak's right to speech and expression, and similarly, non­violent congress persons lent extensive support to Bhagat Singh. 
• Similarly, Public Safety Bill of 1928 and Trade Disputes Bill (to suppress trade unions and leftists) were unequivocally opposed by political leaders and capitalists such as Ghanshyam Das Birla and Purushottamdas Thakurdas etc. 
• The national movement promoted 'unity in diversity' and 'national integration' and promoted a 'composite national culture'.

Even before colonial rule, the idea of a nation was present as the notions of 'Bharat Varsha' and 'Hindustan' show which were in currency much earlier. Colonial consolidation only complemented the process which was already going on. Colonial rulers, in fact, tried to misguide Indians by saying that democracy is not fit for them.

• Apart from these values, the national movement also projected an image of strong and self-reliant India and an antipathy to economic imperialism. Both agriculture and industry were accorded high priority. 
• 1931 Karachi Resolution on Fundamental Rights and Economic Program' was presided over by Sardar Patel and drafted by Nehru echoed state participation in the major field of economic self-reliance. 
• Gandhiji primarily supported the cottage industry but said that he is not opposed to machines for the larger benefit of the community and doesn't replace human labour. Agrarian reforms were identified as a key focus area.

Removal of poverty was also accorded next priority to uprooting colonialism and equality irrespective of caste, religion, and gender. Karachi Session declared that 'every citizen shall enjoy the freedom of conscience and the right 'to profess and practise his religion freely. Indians never criticized the British on religious lines they criticized their oppression and not the fact that they were Christians. Secularism never conflicted with religion and Gandhiji believed, politics and religion are not opposed to each other as politics is to be based on morality and all religion are a source of morality. But later he also preached separation of two in wake of rising communalization of Indian society.

However, the movement failed to reflect a strong anti-caste ideology and couldn't avert partition and communalization of Indian society.

The Constitution

• India finally zeroed in on a federal government with an intense centre. It had a peculiar Indian context in which the decision was taken. India had borne the scourge of partition and there were many cleavages in form of communalism, caste, regionalism etc which could be overcome only by the strong central leadership. 
• There was also a strong need to give India a shape of a single nation through emotional, social and political integration. A centre-leaning federation was a necessity rather than a desire.
• Thus, India emerged as a 'union' of states in which states had no right to secede. Unlike federation in which, states are brought together through an 'agreement' out of their own will, union made it clear that their existence is merely for administrative convenience.

Early Years

• India inherited enormous challenges like poverty, deprivation, inequality, illiteracy, underdevelopment, communalism and so on at the time of independence however, the optimist was also no lesser. Jawahar Lal Nehru's famous speech 'Tryst with Destiny' on the eve of Independence reflected it. 
• One big advantage India had was a consensus on the goals which was a result of a spirit of nationalism inculcated through long freedom struggle. Another one was a relatively stable political system.
• The biggest task at hand was the consolidation of India and the realization of the dream of true 'nationhood'. Unity of our nation was fragile and needed to be bolstered up amidst its legendry diversity of race, religion, caste, region and culture. The vision of secular India and the idea of not only political freedom but social and economic emancipation were the spirit behind.
• India also aimed at self-sufficiency in the economic field and hence truly dislodge the burden of dependency. Planned development was sought for social and economic justice apart from growth. Socialism was also set as a guiding light.
• Indian socialism was not an ideological dogma, but a broad guide to the development and social change. According to Nehru 'Socialism or communism might help you divide the existing wealth, but in India, there is no wealth and all you can divide is poverty... How we can have a welfare state without wealth'. So socialism was not a blind ideological goal, but it rather accommodated many other ideas that were necessary for the development of India.
• Three pillars of Nehruvian strategy of development strategy were - planning for rapid industrial and agricultural growth, a public sector to develop strategic industries and a mixed economy. 
• The mixed economy was preferred earlier for lack of adequate resources, but private sector working under a broad planning framework. In the long run, the state was to occupy commanding heights of the economy, owning and controlling all basic industries and strategic sectors of the economy. The public sector was also expected to generate revenues in long turn for the government.
• Another big achievement of India was a democratic polity based on universal adult franchise. In KM Panikkar's words, 'adult suffrage has many social implications far beyond its political significance. Many social groups previously unaware of their strength and barely touched by the political changes that had taken place, suddenly realized that they were in a position to wield power. 
• It was a huge experiment and the likes of Churchill predicted that it would fail. Democratization aimed that all challenges will be dealt with equal participation, irrespective of one's status and capabilities. It was also realized that democracy was necessary for a country which aims at national integration. Democracy served on the one hand an empowering tool, a vent for dissent and dissatisfaction on the other. Democracy was also visualized as a tool for social change.
• Gandhiji had foreseen the challenges that are ahead and commented that 'with the end of slavery and the dawn of freedom, all the society's weakness is bound to come to the surface'.
• In the social scene, caste was a big sickness and condition of lower castes was still deplorable. Status of women was also no better, they had little inheritance rights and literacy was an abysmal 7.9%. There was also a lack of a civil code and polygamy was prevalent.

Another big challenge was meeting the expectations of people who had infinite hopes from a government of 'their own'. The universal adult franchise, lofty promises like 'Garibi Hatao’ of Indira Gandhi in 1971 and grass-root mobilization further fuelled these expectations. Rise of regional parties in the 1960s further stoked the fire of expectations.

• Neville Maxwell, a Times correspondent, in a series of articles wrote that Indian democracy will disintegrate under the burden of caste, communalism, regionalism, economic disparities, linguistic jingoism and other economic challenges. 
• According to him, 'The great experiment of developing India in a democratic framework has failed' and fourth general elections will be the last one. The imposition of emergency further made this doomsday prophecy look more like a reality. 
• Early wars with China and Pakistan, death of charismatic leaders like Nehru and Indira, communal flares, linguistic violence and Dravida movement, secessionist movements in Kashmir, North-eastern states, the rise of left-wing extremism, the apparent failure of land reforms, agrarian distress, elite capture of politics, uncontrolled population and so on further posed an existential question. 
• It was advocated that India's unlettered masses require leadership with an iron fist and not liberal democracy which they are likely to squander away. Extreme leftists argued that the Green Revolution would be turned into Red revolution and India too needs like a Russian Revolution of 1917 and workers revolution of China of 1952-3.
• It was argued that democracy and integration are imposed from above and not a result of the natural evolutionary process. An immature citizenry will fail to appreciate this change and will be eventually disillusioned by failing a mountain of expectations. Despite all this scepticism, democracy in India had started deepening its roots aided by a stable early period in Indian polity. Early charismatic popular leaders and their accommodative stance helped in easing many of the fears of various groups.

Early Challenges

• Early challenges included administrative and physical integration of nation, communal harmony, rehabilitation of refugees migrated from Pakistan, communist insurgency etc. 
• Apart from these, there were also social challenges like poverty, inequality, casteism, etc. Economic challenges like poor industrial base, low per capita income and investment, backward agriculture, and so on and political challenges like building a representative democracy.
• At the international level, India needed to project itself as a nation with independent foreign policy in the wake of the Cold War. Another challenge was to address the high hopes of a euphoric nation without misrepresenting them. The biggest of all of them being - holding of India together.
• Holding election and strengthening of democracy based on the universal adult franchise was one of the biggest challenges for such a huge illiterate people. First general elections were held in 1951-52 and those above 21 years were eligible for vote. 
• Symbols were used for easy identification of candidates. Opposition parties were liberally allowed including Jan Sangh - political front of RSS which was banned just 3 years ago - and CPI was involved in insurgency just some times back. Nehru did vigorous campaigning in which he laid stress on voter education and awareness. 
• In some places, polls were celebrated like festivals and less than 5% of votes were invalid, showing that people had used their rights judiciously. 
• More than 40% of eligible women voted which showed their active participation as well. In total, 46% used their voting rights. Congress swept elections with more than 75% seats in Lok Sabha and 68% in states forming government in all of them, but still getting less than 50% vote share. Communists were second-largest single party in Lok Sabha. Further, independents and local regional parties garnered almost 27% of vote share and 71 seats. 
• It is said that it heralded one-party domination in India. The opposition was small, but many leaders were of high calibre. The first democratically formed communist government was formed in Kerala in 1957. It was however dismissed in 1959 by Nehru which is still criticised. Certain negative trends also started like - squabble for tickets, vote bank politics, shifting of loyalties. 
• However, after the successful conduct of the first three elections, it became apparent that democracy in India has taken deep roots and it defied the expectation of naysayers. The constitutional framework was now accepted by one and all including communists and communalists.

Institution building was also a challenge. Independence of courts and press was carefully nurtured. The early leaders also paid Parliament as an institution full of respect and it was used as a platform of debates and discussion to the fullest. Despite congress dominance, the opposition was strengthened. Nehru and others responded positively to their criticism and suggestions. States were allowed to work independently in the spirit of federalism and Nehru never coerced them even if there was disagreement over issues like land reforms close to his heart. Congress rule at both centre and states helped in smoothening this process. Similarly, the army was also insulated from civil administration and politics. Its size was kept under limits and steps were taken to reinforce secular nature.

• Another decision was taken concerning the continuance of civil services and especially Indian Civil Services (ICS). Nehru was a critic of civil services for their colonial legacy and conservatism. According to him, ICS was 'neither Indian, neither civil nor a service. 
• While Nehru wanted to replace ICS with another type of administrative machinery that could better respond to new India needs, Patel felt the doing so will create a great void and discontinuity dangerous to the unity of the country. According to him, it was because of their hard work and patriotism that India could be united. They were renamed as Indian Administrative Services, but we also failed to build their character suitable to our needs. It is said that administration has actually deteriorated over the years due to corruption, feudalistic mindset, political nexus, inaccessibility and so on.
• Another challenge was developing the field of science and technology. Nehru was well aware of the role of science and technology in alleviating poverty and backwardness. 
• He himself assumed the Indian Council of Scientific Research (ICSR) chairmanship, which guided and financed national laboratories and scientific institutions and opened the first national laboratory - National Physical Laboratory - in 1947. First five IITs were opened on lines of MIT, USA starting with the establishment of IIT Kharagpur in 1952. 
• Atomic Energy Commission was formed in 1948 with Homi Jehangir Bhabha as its chairman for development of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. The first nuclear reactor also went critical in 1956 in Trombay. Similarly, in the field of space, TERLS was established in 1962. However, Indian scientific endeavour also suffered due to hierarchical structure, brain drain and high entry barriers.

Perhaps the biggest of all challenges was in the field of social change. India had tacitly declared its socialistic agenda by initiating land reforms, labour laws, progressive taxation, expansion of education and health, planned economic development and rapid expansion of the public sector. Untouchability was abolished in the constitution and a commissioner for SCs and STs was established. Towards upliftment of women, Hindu Code Bill was passed in parliament in form of four separate acts and provided for - the right to property and maintenance, raised the age of marriage and consent, abolished polygamy and gave them right to divorce. However, similar reforms were not introduced in Muslim women, and neither uniform civil code was introduced.

Rural upliftment was another big challenge and two major programs were launched in form of Community Development Program (CDP), 1952 and Panchayati Raj, 1959. CDP was launched in 55 blocks of 100 villages each and aimed at addressing all aspects of rural life like agriculture, health, education and infrastructure with the help of the local community. It aimed at self-reliance, building capacity and leadership at the rural level and augmenting durable rural assets and institutions. 

• It was also accompanied by National Extension Services and achieved success in major extension work - better seeds, fertilizers, etc. It also led to the building of basic infrastructure in the form of roads, tanks, primary health setups etc. However, it was a gross failure on its objective of local involvement and instead it raised expectations and government reliance. It became highly bureaucratic and BDOs became the centrepiece of it. 
• The rural elites usurped major gains and powerless landless got little benefit out of it. Balwant Rai Mehta Committee was appointed to evaluate it. It recommended establishing a Panchayati Raj framework for decentralisation of developmental administration, which happened in a 3-tier structure in various states. 
• However, like CDP, it too proved dead duck with states showing little enthusiasm and bureaucratic showing little willingness to loosen its grip over rural administration.

Pursuance of independent foreign policy and an ability to raise her voice in international for a was also a challenge for India. Concrete shape to such ideas was given in form of 'Non-Aligned Movement', principled distance from world superpowers and non-involvement in Cold War.It doesn't meant indifference to others, but avoidance of only the unreasonable. 

• It never came in way of strengthening our relations with the USSR, nor did it came in way of India's joining Commonwealth. Neither meant utopian pacifism as India used force when it realized that it is necessary to do so as in the case of 1947, 1965 and 1971. 
• It was agreed that developing countries cannot afford to waste precious resources in rivalries. Hence, India neither joined or approved regional west supported blocs like Baghdad Pact, SEATO (South East Asian Treaty Organization), CENTO (Central Treaty Organization), etc. 
• Western thinkers tried to malign Indian approach by calling it as 'immoral neutrality, however, it was rebuffed by India by stressing that non-alignment meant deciding issues on their merit, shunning of colonialism and fascism, believing in their own strengths, world peace, disarmament and democratization of international relations. 
• India supported the cause of colonies and the development of newly independent countries. Towards peaceful coexistence, Nehru also devised 'Panchsheel' doctrine influenced by Buddhism which called for mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity, non-aggression, non-interference in each other's internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit and peaceful coexistence. 
• Even before independence, 'Asia Relations Conference' was held in Delhi in March 1947 attended by 20 nations which set the tone for the independence of Asian countries. Another one was called in 1948 against Dutch (Netherlands or Holland) aggression in Indonesia to recolonize it and it resolved that Asian countries will deny shores to Dutch ships. 
• Another landmark event was 'Bandung Afro Asian Conference', 1955 held in Indonesia. It passed a resolution for world peace and dangers of nuclear weapons and it proved a precursor to 'Belgrade Non-Alignment Conference', 1961 under the leadership of Nehru, Naseer of Egypt and Tito of Yugoslavia. 
• India also remained an active member of international bodies like UN, the IMF, World Bank, etc and actively sent its forces in international peacekeeping operations. 
• The stance of non-alignment also helped in ensuring India's economic interests and got help from both Western countries and the Soviet Union. Its military procurement net was also cast widely which shows its balanced approach, reduced excessive dependency on one country and better bargaining. It got Hunter and Canberra aircraft from the UK, MI-4 Helicopters and MIG interceptors from Soviet, Toofani aircraft from France, Jonga jeeps and Nissan trucks from Japan and so on. India also skillfully managed its relations with other countries. On one hand through various agreements in 1964-65 Soviet Union became the biggest defence partner, on the other hand, it made the US a key ally in bringing Green Revolution.

Early Leadership

Leadership included Nehru accompanied by Congressmen like Sardar Patel, C Rajagopalachari, Morarji Desai, Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad etc. and outside Congress, socialists like Acharya Narendra Dev, J P Narayana, communists like P C Joshi, Ajoy Ghosh, Dalit leaders like Baba Ambedkar and so on. Congress enjoyed enormous support at that time, and leaders from other parties though disagreed on certain issues, there was broad consensus on larger issues related to social change and national development. Constituent Assembly was highly representative from all segments and so was the first cabinet which included 5 non-Congress persons (out of total 14) like liberal communalist Syama Prasad Mukharjee, Ambedkar, John Mathai etc. S Radha

Krishnan first vice-president and the second president was never a Congressman. Patel has been grossly misunderstood leader and was accused by leftists for being rightist and by rightist for following Nehruvian socialism. He shared the ideals of national movement and was strictly opposed to communalism and landlordism. He did supported capitalism, but for the growth of nation and social development and this was also the reason that he supported right to property as a fundamental right despite opposition of Nehru. He had an austere lifestyle and had a zero-tolerance for corruption. He died in December 1950 leaving behind a unified India.