Passage
One of the most important tasks of ethical analysis is to deliver us from our unrecognized prejudices about right and wrong. For ethicist Paul Taylor perhaps no prejudice is so deeply ingrained as speciesism, the view that members of the human species deserve treatment superior to that accorded members of other species.
In place of speciesism, Taylor proposes a new theory of environmental ethics based on "the biocentric outlook. " This outlook asserts that humans are equal members of the earth's community of life and that they and members of other species are interdependent. It further sees all organisms as teleological centers of life in the sense that each is a unique individual pursuing its own best interests by its own means and that "humans are not inherently superior to other living things. "
Taylor claims that the theory provides the foundation and justification for "respect for nature, " the only moral attitude suitable to have towards earth's creatures. Respect for nature requires both recognizing that wild plants and animals have inherent worth, and following the moral norm that "living things ought not to be harmed or interfered with in nature. " Taylor claims that human behavior toward nonhumans ought to be guided by the rules of nonmaleficence and noninterference, as well the rule of fidelity and the rule of restitutive justice. These rules prohibit, respectively: harming any entity in the natural environment; restricting the freedom of natural entities or ecosystems so that they cannot exist in a wild state; mistreating any wild animal, as often occurs during hunting or fishing; and failing to make amends when one wrongs a wild plant or animal in any way.
One problem is with Taylor's scheme that both accords "inherent worth " to all plants, animals, and humans, and then requires compensation for every intrusion, use, or control (done even for a good reason) affecting any living entity. If everyone has duties of compensation to virtually every other living entity, as indeed we must under Taylor's scheme, then applying Taylor's ethics is complex, cumbersome, and unworkable. There is also the problem with the applicability of Taylor's concepts and duties.
He claims repeatedly that "all wild living things in the Earth's natural ecosystems " possess inherent worth. Yet he admits that there are very few wild things in genuinely natural ecosystems—ecosystems wholly free from any human intrusion. This raises at least two problems. First, why does Taylor claim that we have duties only to wild living things in natural ecosystems? If we have only these duties, and if most living things are not wild and not in natural ecosystems, then Taylor may fail to deal with the bulk of problems arising in environmental ethics. Also, if natural ecosystems are those that have experienced no human intrusion or control, then Taylor seems to say that humans are not part of the "natural " world. This contradicts Taylor's claim that humans are members of earth's community "in the same sense " as plants and animals.
Taylor does deserve praise because he avoids many of the errors of earlier theorists of environmental ethics. For example, Taylor explicitly rejects Leopold's highly questionable belief that inanimate objects can be moral subjects; he also disavows an organicist or Gaia view of environmental ethics, as pursued by Leopold, Goodpaster, Lovelock, and others, and shows why organicism errs in giving no place to the good of individual organisms.
Question for 100 RCs for Practice Questions- 90
Try yourself:The author points out that Taylor argues that "humans are equal members of the earth's community of life and that they and members of other species are interdependent. " Based on information in the passage, which one of the following situations would NOT violate one of Taylor's four rules?
Explanation
Focus on the rules listed in paragraph 3, looking for a situation that wouldn't violate Taylor's approaches. (B) involves termites, non—wild animals in a non—wild setting, which would seem to fall outside Taylor's scope.
Wrong answers:
(A): Opposite. Wild things in a natural ecosystem would be harmed, which would violate Taylor's rules.
(C): Opposite.This violates the second rule "restricting the freedom of natural entities. "
(D): Opposite. Another instance of potentially harming a wild organism without any sort of compensation.
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Question for 100 RCs for Practice Questions- 90
Try yourself:According to the passage, which of the following behaviors is most likely to be exhibited by people who practice speciesism?
Explanation
A difficult question to predict. We're looking for a sort of person or action that would violate Taylor's principles by practicing the theory he rejects. A scan of the answer choices shows only one instance where animals are clearly being exploited: (A) has what you need.
Wrong answers:
(B): Out of Scope. While Taylor might argue that harm is being caused to the fruits and vegetables, there's no evidence they're being eaten for reasons of speciesism.
(C): Opposite. This would seem to fit Taylor's idea that harm should be accompanied by compensation.
(D): Out of Scope. No hint of speciesism here.
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Question for 100 RCs for Practice Questions- 90
Try yourself:In the context of the passage, the phrase biocentric outlook (second paragraph) refers primarily to:
Explanation
As with all vocabulary—in—context questions, research the relevant text. The phrase is being used to describe a perspective from which Taylor's view came about. Look for an explanation of "biocentric outlook " just after the word comes up and it mirrors (C).
Wrong answers:
(A): Distortion. Taylor's "biocentric view " never goes so far.
(B): Opposite. Taylor disavows this theory of Leopold's in paragraph 6.
(D): Opposite. Taylor claims that "humans and...other species are interdependent " (paragraph 2).
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Question for 100 RCs for Practice Questions- 90
Try yourself:Suppose that a family feared for the safety of their cat. To protect it, they prevented the cat from leaving the house because the cat would be unable to defend itself against neighborhood dogs. Would the family be violating one of Taylor's four rules?
Explanation
A domesticated animal: use the same point that's been recurring from question to question—Taylor's theory is concerned with wild animals, not domestic ones. Looking for answer choice that fits this immediately turns up (A).
Wrong answers:
(B): Out of Scope. Taylor doesn't deal with domestic animals at all, and so the motives for the action toward the animal are irrelevant.
(C): Out of Scope. Taylor doesn't argue that all domesticated animals should be set free.
(D): Out of Scope. As above.
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Question for 100 RCs for Practice Questions- 90
Try yourself:Which of the following statements reflects one of the author's criticisms of Taylor's theory?
Explanation
The question basically asks you to find a paraphrase of one of the author's two criticisms. Quickly review them: it's impractical, and it doesn't go far enough (paragraphs 4 and 5). (D) fits the latter.
Wrong answers:
(A): Faulty Use of Detail. Taylor does "reject [the] ... belief that inanimate objects can be moral subjects ", but the author approves of this rejection.
(B): Opposite. The author doesn't dispute Taylor's claim that humans shouldn't be considered superior.
(C): Opposite. The author likes this part of Taylor's theory (final sentence of the passage).
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Question for 100 RCs for Practice Questions- 90
Try yourself:Suppose that one is hiking in the Sierra Nevadas outside of Yosemite and is suddenly attacked by a mountain lion. One could save oneself from the attack, but only by seriously injuring or killing the mountain lion. According to Taylor's ethical scheme, what should one do?
Explanation
An application question; try to apply the new situation to Taylor's principles. Taylor argues that species shouldn't be hurt simply because one considers humans superior to other species, but never addresses anything that could touch on self—defense. (D) reflects the idea that this situation is outside of Taylor's scope.
Wrong answers:
(A): Out of Scope. Taylor offers no suggestion that this is the best option.
(B): Out of Scope. Taylor never suggests that humans should sacrifice themselves for nature.
(C): Opposite. More tempting than the other choices because it saves the individual species, but there's nothing to go on in Taylor's rules one way or the other.
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Question for 100 RCs for Practice Questions- 90
Try yourself:If Taylor were in a position of influence with regards to the government, he would probably give his greatest support to which of the following actions?
Explanation
Review Taylor's main points, and check each answer choices against what you know about Taylor's views. While three answer choices deal with domestic organisms, with which Taylor doesn't concern himself, (C) alone deals with harm caused to a wild ecosystem.
Wrong answers:
(A): Out of Scope. Taylor isn't concerned with domestic animals.
(B): Out of Scope. As above.
(D): Out of Scope. As above.
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Question for 100 RCs for Practice Questions- 90
Try yourself:According to the author, all of the following are problems with Taylor's theory EXCEPT:
Explanation
Review the problems the author has with Taylor's theory as well as the author's own views. Knock out answer choices that fit the author's critiques. All can be eliminated from the passage except (C), which is mentioned in paragraph 6 as a theory that Taylor departs from.
Wrong answers:
(A): Opposite. Mentioned in paragraph 4.
(B): Opposite. Mentioned in paragraph 5.
(D): Opposite. Mentioned in paragraph 5.
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