Quantitative Revolution & Locational Analysis | Geography Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Quantitative Revolution

For over 200 years, geography faced the challenge of generalization and theory-building, while other physical and social sciences, such as sociology and public administration, had a long tradition of developing theories. During the evolution of geography as a subject, debates and discussions ensued on whether to adopt a subjective or objective approach.

• To make geography more objective, scholars considered using the laws of physics, models, and other scientific elements, which led to a shift in focus towards the Quantitative Revolution. Some scholars, however, preferred geography to remain a descriptive subject.
• After World War II, geographers from developed countries realized the importance of using mathematical language instead of literary language in geography. For example, the term "Af" in Koppen's climate classification represents tropical rainforests. Following the war, only subjects with societal relevance survived, leading to the World Social Science Congress being held at Princeton University in the USA in 1949.
• Two major conclusions from this congress were: the subject matter should be relevant to society and practically applicable, and the approach should be updated for the changing socio-economic context, necessitating a methodological change in social sciences. As a result, the Quantitative Revolution became more prominent after World War II for several reasons, including the World Social Science Congress, American and Canadian universities dropping geography from their curricula, Schaeffer's argument supporting the nomothetic approach, and geographers wanting to elevate their discipline to the level of physical sciences.
• The 1949 congress developed the concept that social sciences should adopt quantitative methods or tools for scientific inquiry, providing a new lease of life for these subjects. Immediately after the congress, Zipf, the first geographer to use new methods, published a research paper titled "Human Behavior and Principles of Least Effort" in 1949. He employed the rank-size correlation method of Spearman to establish the correlation between rank and population size.
• The extensive use of qualitative tools and the introduction of new electronic devices enabled complex mathematical computations that had never been attempted before. Canadian geographer Burton was the first to introduce statistical methods in geography, publishing a research paper titled "Qualitative Revolution and Theoretical Geography."

Quantitative Revolution – Definition and Related information

The term "Quantitative Revolution" was first introduced by Burton in 1963, referring to the application of statistical and mathematical techniques, theorems, and proofs in understanding geographical systems. This revolution in geography was developed by B.J.L. Berry and Richard Chorley and marked the introduction of statistical methods in the field during the 1950s.

• The Quantitative Revolution called for a change in methodology, providing a scientific character to the discipline. This new methodology incorporated mathematical tools, statistical analysis, and laws of physics, which added objectivity and a scientific touch, as desired by some geographers. As a result, the Quantitative Revolution provided geography with a solid philosophical and theoretical foundation.
• The main aim of the Quantitative Revolution was to make the study of geography more useful by enabling precise generalizations and identifying ideal locations for economic activities. It sought to explain and interpret spatial patterns of geographical phenomena in a rational and objective manner using physics laws, mathematical tools, statistical analysis, and more.
• Inspired by the positivistic school of thought, the Quantitative Revolution was supported by prominent figures such as Neil Harvey, Schaeffer, Ackerman, Haggett, and Chorley.

The foundation of the Quantitative Revolution was based on various methods, including:

1. Statistical Methods: These involve calculations such as mean (e.g., HDI), median, mode, coefficient of variability (e.g., rainfall), standard deviation (e.g., rainfall), probability, and the least square method (e.g., agriculture).
2. Mathematical Methods: Techniques such as algebra (e.g., locational triangle), geometry theorems, and triangular methods were employed, leading to spatial analysis in geography.
3. Laws of Physics: The Quantitative Revolution also incorporated principles from physics, such as gravity laws (e.g., gravity model and breakpoint theory), thermodynamic laws (e.g., the study of ecosystems), and cybernetics (e.g., the study of regulating or self-regulating systems).
4. Neoclassical Economics: Theories from economists like Ricardo, Adam Smith, Weber, and Keynes also played a role in shaping the Quantitative Revolution.

In summary, the Quantitative Revolution in geography marked a significant shift in the discipline, emphasizing the use of mathematical, statistical, and scientific methods to better understand and analyze geographical phenomena.

Approaches in Quantitative Revolution

Quantitative Revolution was based on 3 Approaches –

• Locational Analysis – It includes spatial analysis but seeks to find out the optimum location (where profit is maximum and cost is minimum) by applying statistical and mathematical techniques, physics laws, etc
  • e.g. Weber Locational Model, Von Thunen Agricultural Model
  • It was suggested by P. Haggett and Bunge
• Spatial Analysis – It is the Study of Earth as a Space Geometry
  • It includes measurements & Divisions of space and man became a point on Surface
  • It means Geometrical analysis, the study of distance, the geometrical shape of CPT
• System Analysis – Study of various functional components of a system and their interrelationships
  • e.g. in Central Place Theory, the relationship between various settlements at various hierarchical levels.

Assumptions
Models and Theories formulated in this era were based on some common assumptions as these models follow ideal conditions such as –

• Man is economic and rational
• Man has infinite knowledge of his environment and resources
• Space (Environment and Resources) is isotropic surface
• There is no place for normative questions like cultural values, social values, emotions, etc in Geographical Research
• Assumed prices to be the same everywhere.

Philosophy behind the Quantitative Revolution

• The Quantitative Revolution in philosophy is guided by Positivism, which asserts that reality is what can be acknowledged and understood. This approach involves forming universal laws by unifying the sciences and disregarding normative aspects such as values, morals, ethics, and emotions. In this view, humans are seen as rational and economically driven beings, and reality is defined through laws.
• Functionalism is another key aspect of the Quantitative Revolution, as it encourages system analysis. This approach involves examining the different elements of a phenomenon and their interrelationships to gain a deeper understanding.
• Empiricism is also an essential component of the Quantitative Revolution, as it emphasizes the importance of direct observation in understanding the world. By focusing on empirical evidence, this approach aims to provide a solid foundation for knowledge and understanding.

Phases of Quantitative Revolution

• Phase 1 – Genesis Phase
  • 1818-1915
    (i) Von Thunen Model for Agriculture
    (ii) Weber Industrial Model
    (iii) Migration laws of Ravenstein etc
  • 1915-1950
    (i) Settlement Geography
    (ii) Rank Size Rule
    (iii) Primate City Concept
    (iv) Some economic models etc
• Phase 2 – Zenith Phase
  • 1950-1970
    (i) Geographers dropped all other methods to adopt Quantitative Techniques
    (ii) Dominance of the Quantitative Revolution
    (iii) Quantitative Revolution term coined by Burton in 1963
    (iv) Several models were created such as the Gravity Model, Distance Decay law, Losch Model, the sphere of Urban Influence, etc
• Phase 3 – Declining Phase
  • Post-1970s
    (i) After 1976, the Quantitative Revolution was suddenly abandoned as its supporters stopped supporting it due to its lost relevance
    (ii) Limitations of Quantitative Revolution came to the front
    (iii) As a reaction, Critical Revolution started to grow which was more guided by humanism and took into consideration normative questions.

Advantages of Quantitative Revolution

• The Quantitative Revolution brought significant advancements to the field of geography, transforming it into a more structured and accurate discipline. It introduced a scientific approach and quantitative tools that greatly improved the relevance and functionality of geographical studies. This revolution breathed new life into geography, making it more objective and less reliant on descriptive methods.
• The use of primary information sources became possible, reducing the dependence on secondary and tertiary sources from other sciences. This allowed modern geography to develop scientific theories and models that were previously empirical and untested. The Quantitative Revolution provided a strong scientific and methodological foundation for the discipline.
• Quantitative tools have been instrumental in explaining the relationship between humans and the environment using correlation and regression methods. In addition, central values and deviation methods have enhanced the quality of geographical mapping. Today, scattered diagrams, choropleth maps, and isopleth maps are drawn with scientific intervals, providing valuable information to development agencies.
• Nearest neighbor statistics have improved the understanding of spatial patterns of settlement distribution, enabling the identification of compact, dispersed, and randomly distributed patterns. This information is crucial for planners in developing infrastructure and addressing socio-economic variables.
• Before the Quantitative Revolution, geographical regionalization was based on observation and assessment, which led to issues with overlapping and non-inclusions. Gravitational models now offer a scientifically defined regionalization process. For example, the Crop Combination Regionalization developed by Weaver, which is based on the deviation method, has gained popularity worldwide.
• Quantitative techniques have also facilitated the handling of multivariate information in investigations of socio-economic problems in geography. This allows for the generalization of information, reducing a large amount of data to a manageable number of factors. The Quantitative Revolution has thus served as an essential tool for measuring reality and deviation in the field of geography.

Demerits of Quantitative Revolution

The Quantitative Revolution has been criticized for various reasons, some of which are:

• Ignoring human aspects: It disregards human elements such as emotions, beliefs, values, and cultural practices, which play a significant role in the real-world decision-making process and the relationship between humans and their environment.
• Limited applicability: The models developed during the Quantitative Revolution are often based on idealistic conditions that do not exist in reality, making them less universally applicable.
• Oversimplification: By reducing humans to mere points on a surface, the Quantitative Revolution oversimplifies the complex relationship between humans and their environment.
• Promotion of capitalism: The focus on locational analysis has been criticized for promoting capitalist ideologies.
• Loss of human-environment focus: The primary task of studying the reciprocal relationship between humans and nature was sidelined during the Quantitative Revolution.
• Economic determinism: Quantitative models tend to reduce humans to passive agents, determined by economic factors.
• Unemployment: The development of advanced machinery and automation can lead to job losses.
• Inadequate language: Geometry, the preferred language of the Quantitative Revolution, is not suitable for explaining human-environment relationships.
• Rationality assumption: The assumption that humans always act rationally to optimize profit has been criticized as unrealistic.
• Limited knowledge: The assumption that humans have infinite knowledge of their environment is also criticized, as technology and resources are constantly changing.
• Data limitations: Reliable data, which is essential for applying quantitative methods, is often scarce in developing countries.
• Overgeneralization: Quantitative models can sometimes lead to overgeneralization and distortion of certain features.
• Incompatibility with social sciences: Critics argue that the mathematical and scientific approach of the Quantitative Revolution is not well-suited for social sciences like geography.
• Reliance on maps: Some critics, such as Dudley Stamp, argue that maps are sufficient for understanding geography and that additional quantitative tools are unnecessary.
• Lack of flexibility: Quantitative methods tend to produce rigid conclusions, whereas social sciences often require more flexible interpretations.

In summary, the Quantitative Revolution has faced criticism for its oversimplification of human-environment relationships, disregard for human aspects, promotion of capitalism, and incompatibility with the flexible nature of social sciences. Despite these criticisms, it has contributed to the advancement of geographical knowledge and the development of more sophisticated models and maps.

School of Locational Analysis

The School of Locational Analysis, also known as spatial analysis or area analysis, is a branch of human geography that focuses on the study of human trends and phenomena in specific locations. It aims to create accurate generalizations, models, and theories that have predictive power, based on the philosophy of positivism and empiricism. The primary methodology used in locational analysis is spatial science.

• The development of locational analysis can be traced back to the 1950s in the United States, where several geographers advocated for its importance. However, its actual implementation started in the 1960s, with geographers such as Bunge and McCarty playing significant roles. Bunge (1966) wrote a thesis titled "Theoretical Geography," in which he defined geography as the "science of locations." On the other hand, McCarty was heavily influenced by developments in economics, which led him to introduce spatial variables in the field of geography.
• Locational analysis is characterized by its focus on the spatial arrangement of phenomena, such as Weber's Industrial Location Model for profit maximization. It is closely linked to the quantitative revolution, as it strives to identify theories of spatial arrangements using empirical observations. In this approach, facts are assumed to "speak for themselves."
• One of the key objectives of locational analysis is to develop accurate generalizations, models, and theories that can predict outcomes. Geographers like Haggett (1965) proposed adopting a geometrical approach to explain order, location, and patterns in human geography, as seen in the Locational Triangle Model. To further understand the relationships between humans and their environment, a systems approach focusing on patterns and linkages within an assemblage was suggested.
• Other geographers, such as Morril, Col, Chorley, Cox, Harvey, and Johnston, have also contributed to the field of locational analysis. For example, Morril argued in his book, "The Spatial Organization of Society," that people aim to maximize spatial interaction at minimum cost, leading to related activities being located in close proximity. This results in human societies being surprisingly similar across different places.

In summary, the School of Locational Analysis is a branch of human geography that focuses on spatial arrangements and trends in specific locations. It aims to create accurate generalizations, models, and theories using spatial science, with an emphasis on empirical observations. This approach has been advocated and developed by various geographers since the 1950s, and it continues to play a crucial role in understanding human-environment relationships and spatial patterns.

Criticisms Against Locational Analysis

• Locational analysis in human geography has faced criticism from behavioralists and humanists on philosophical and methodological grounds. Some of the primary critiques against locational analysis are:
• Locational analysis, based on positivism, overlooks normative questions in explaining the relationship between humans and the environment. It erroneously assumes that positive theory automatically leads to normative insight. Cultural values play a significant role in decision-making processes, and the ideal location for an economic activity may not always be acceptable to individuals or society.
• Locational analysis fails to accurately represent the reality of decision-making processes and thus has limited value in predicting locational patterns.
• The models developed using locational analysis tend to simplify the complexities of the real world.
• As societies become increasingly economically interdependent globally, spatial interdependence has become more critical, rendering locally experienced environmental dependencies less relevant.
• Locational analysis has been criticized for promoting a capitalist social order that benefits the wealthy at the expense of the poor.
• It enables capitalists to optimize their profits, leading to unchecked exploitation and environmental degradation.
• Locational analysis can contribute to overproduction and overindustrialization in the economy.
• The rise of locational analysis and capitalism has led to the emergence of new technologies, transportation methods, education systems, art forms, morals, media, amusements, weapons, violence, terrorism, wars, and modes of exploitation.
• Positivist spatial scientists tend to treat people as mere data points on a map or in an equation, disregarding their humanity.
• Positivist spatial scientists often neglect human and animate aspects of geography.
• The shortcomings of locational analysis have led to the increased significance of behavioralism and humanism in human geography.
• While locational analysis has significantly impacted human geography since the mid-1960s, it remains uncertain if it ever truly dominated the discipline.
• Locational analysis presents geography as a positivist social science, focused on developing precise, quantitative generalizations about spatial organization patterns and enriching location theory. It also offers models and procedures for use in physical planning.

Comparing Spatial and Locational Analysis
Spatial analysis emphasizes the spatial arrangement of phenomena, focusing on organizational centers (nodes), networks, interactions/flows, distances, and relative distances. In contrast, locational analysis examines specific locations, analyzing factors such as population demographics, migration patterns, industries, literacy rates, and educational infrastructure.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Quantitative Revolution significantly transformed the field of geography by introducing a scientific approach and quantitative tools that improved the relevance and functionality of geographical studies. However, it has faced criticism for oversimplifying human-environment relationships and disregarding human aspects. Locational analysis, as a part of the Quantitative Revolution, focuses on the spatial arrangement of phenomena and has contributed to the development of models and theories to understand spatial organization. Despite its limitations and criticisms, both the Quantitative Revolution and locational analysis have played crucial roles in advancing geographical knowledge and shaping the discipline into what it is today.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Quantitative Revolution & Locational Analysis

What is the Quantitative Revolution in geography?

The Quantitative Revolution is a significant shift in the field of geography that occurred in the mid-20th century. It involved the application of statistical and mathematical techniques, theorems, and proofs to understand geographical systems. This revolution transformed geography into a more structured, accurate, and scientific discipline by introducing quantitative tools and methods.

What are the main characteristics of Locational Analysis in geography?

Locational Analysis is an approach to human geography that focuses on the spatial arrangement of phenomena, such as economic activities and human settlements. It is based on positivist philosophy and empirical methodology, and often involves the use of spatial science, mathematical models, and quantitative techniques to make precise generalizations and identify optimal locations for various activities.

What are some criticisms of the Quantitative Revolution and Locational Analysis in geography?

Critics argue that the Quantitative Revolution and Locational Analysis oversimplify human-environment relationships, ignore human aspects such as emotions, values, and cultural practices, and promote capitalist ideologies. They also point out that models developed during this era are often based on idealistic conditions that do not exist in reality, making them less universally applicable.

How did the Quantitative Revolution influence the development of geographical models and tools?

The Quantitative Revolution introduced a variety of quantitative tools and methods to the field of geography, including statistical and mathematical techniques, laws of physics, and economic theories. This allowed geographers to develop more sophisticated models, such as the Gravity Model, Distance Decay Law, and Central Place Theory, and improve the accuracy and relevance of geographical studies.

What is the difference between Spatial Analysis and Locational Analysis in geography?

Spatial Analysis focuses on the study of human trends in a specific place, examining the spatial arrangement of phenomena, such as organizational centers, networks, interactions, and distances. Locational Analysis, on the other hand, is concerned with analyzing specific locations in terms of factors like population, demographics, migration, industries, literacy, and infrastructure. Both approaches are part of the broader field of human geography and often involve the use of quantitative techniques and models.