Radical, Behavioural, Human & Welfare Approaches | Geography Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Radical Approach – Historical Perspective

• Radicalism emerged as a significant approach in geography during the period of the Critical Revolution. This approach was first proposed by Harvey in 1973, with major contributions from Peet (1977) and Holt Jenson (1981). Peet authored a book titled "Radical Geography," leading many geographers to refer to him as the "Father of Radical Geography." He developed an extensive concept of radicalism within the field of geography.
• The emergence of radical geography primarily occurred in the United States, spearheaded by progressive geographers from Clark University in 1969 through a geographical journal called "Antipode." This journal opposed the American capitalistic, socio-economic system, and based on its content, it was widely regarded as a Marxist journal in geography. Peet's book ultimately paved the way for radicalism to gain acceptance in geography. The book included a map illustrating the geographical distribution of poverty in the United States, showing that approximately 20% of people in western states like Utah, Colorado, Washington, and New Mexico lived below the minimum standard of quality of life. Following the publication of Peet's book, the American government initiated a program to improve the quality of life for these individuals.
• The radical approach in geography gained widespread acceptance across American society due to several factors. The Vietnam War and the defeat of the United States by a small group of guerrillas demonstrated the potential for concentrated efforts of small groups to defeat a powerful force. Additionally, radicalism addressed issues such as discrimination and apartheid against African Americans and sought to promote equality in society. It also highlighted the inferior status of women.
• American society found itself more aligned with radicalism, and this branch of geography gained significant appreciation. Geographers from Canadian and West American schools of geography also commended the work of Clark University geographers. Radicalism was seen as an alternative to possibilistic and theoretical geographies that emerged due to the Quantitative Revolution. It was considered a counterproduct to the Quantitative Revolution, as the latter focused on theory, whereas society required radical change. Radicalism provided explanations for geographical events that were difficult to quantify, such as apartheid and the status of women.

Radicalism in Geography
Radicalism in geography is a school of thought rooted in humanism and utilizes Marxist theory to explain the underlying causes of poverty, deprivation, and social inequality. This approach connects contemporary social issues with the development of capitalism.
Radical geographers identify four main components of this perspective:

• It serves as an alternative to the positivist spatial approach.
• It offers a general theoretical framework based on the principles of stimulating the production system, shifting from capitalism to a Marxist approach.
• It seeks to understand how individuals act within structural imperatives, incorporating a humanistic approach.
• It involves empirical work aimed at comprehending specific aspects of human geography within a structuralist framework.

Many radical geographers view geography as a legitimate field of study that can contribute to solving global problems. Their primary goal is to modify the existing societal processes by altering the relations between production components.
However, this approach has faced criticism from two main groups:

• American geographers who support traditional explanations of geographic facts, such as Hartshorne.
• Soviet geographers who consider it a deviation and misinterpretation of Marx and Lenin's philosophies.

Critics argue that American radical geography does not address two essential aspects of Marxist philosophy: the share of workers in a nation's wealth and their participation in management. Other criticisms include the radicalist's revolutionary ideology and aims, as well as the potential threat to the status quo. Furthermore, critics claim that radical geographers have not developed a solid theoretical base and have only acted as pressure groups in the United States.

Humanistic Approach/Humanism

• The Humanistic Approach, also known as Humanism, emerged as a new perspective in geography during the Critical Revolution. This approach is primarily rooted in the behavioral perspective, which was a critique of the Quantitative Revolution. Humanism emphasizes the central role of human beings in addressing complex problems and considers each individual as unique.
• The Humanistic Approach was developed by Tuan in 1976, who believed that human awareness, consciousness, and creativity play a crucial role in understanding the meaning, value, and significance of life events. This perspective views human life as a profile that could represent an individual, family, community, or nation. Life events require an anthropocentric explanation, where each person's behavior in a particular event must be geographically understood.
• Humanism challenges Positivism on several grounds, such as viewing humans as only economic and rational beings, considering geography as purely geometrical and neglecting the human aspect, assuming an isotropic surface, and treating humans as mere points on the surface.
• Although Humanism in geography began in the late 1960s, it gained prominence after the publication of Tuan's work "Humanistic Geography" and the decline of the Quantitative Revolution. The resurgence of humanism in the 1970s can be attributed to a growing dissatisfaction with the mechanistic models developed during the Quantitative Revolution.

Theories of Humanism

1. Human Agency - This theory posits that humans are active agents of change, influencing their environment through tools and technologies. This idea is closely related to possibilism, which emphasizes the role humans play in shaping their surroundings.
2. Human Consciousness - According to this theory, humans are governed by their intellectual environment, which includes their consciousness, perceptions, and mental maps. This concept is closely linked to behavioralism, which focuses on the influence of human cognition on their actions and decisions.
3. Human Awareness - This theory suggests that humans have an innate geographical knowledge that has been growing since their existence. They are aware of the limitations and possibilities of their environment, and this awareness guides their actions. This idea is closely related to existentialism, which emphasizes the importance of human experience and consciousness in understanding the world.
4. Human Creativity - This theory highlights the unique ability of humans to create their own tools and adapt to their environment. According to this idea, the physical environment is neutral, and humans can modify it for their benefit through their creativity. However, human creativity can vary depending on different circumstances, such as how people behave in a crowd versus in private.

Themes
Tuan identifies five fundamental themes of interest to geographers, which are:

• The nature of geographical knowledge and its role in human survival.
• The role of territory in human behavior and the creation of place identities.
• The interrelationship between crowding and privacy.
• The role of knowledge as a factor influencing livelihood.
• The influence of religion on human activities.

These five themes have established the humanistic approach, also known as humanism or humanist geography. Tuan himself advocated for its recognition as a new critical approach in human geography.

Approaches in Humanistic Geography
Recognizing its significance as a branch of geography, several geographers have developed approaches for humanistic geography. Currently, there are three well-established approaches:

• Idealistic Approach: Leonard Gulke developed this approach in 1981. He argued that an idealistic approach is necessary to understand the perceived world through philosophical events in geography, such as historical events of scarcity, large-scale human transfers, and massacres. Gulke developed the concept of humanistic geopolitics based on historical events, asserting that present-day politics rely more on historical events than current ones. However, Gulke's approach and theme did not gain widespread acceptance.
• Hermeneutic Approach: Developed by the German school, this approach is known as the theory of interpretation and classification of meaning.
• Phenomenological Approach: Propounded by Tuan and Kirk, this approach aims to understand the world in its entirety. With a growing consciousness for a global community or a "world village," this approach is thought to be more efficient in understanding worldwide phenomena. Phenomenologists argue that there is no objective world independent of human existence, and all knowledge proceeds from the world of experience and cannot be separate from the world as a whole.

Criticisms
Despite its contributions, the humanistic approach has faced several criticisms:

• It is considered outdated and lacks contemporary relevance.
• On methodological grounds, it separates human geography from physical geography, reviving the dichotomy that is not beneficial for the discipline as a whole.
• The humanistic approach, mainly based on participant observation, lacks a sound and valid methodological base, as it involves more subjective than objective research and can be biased.
• There is an insignificant emphasis on applied research, which may weaken the subject's foundation, especially since other disciplines have been more successful at academic imperialism than geography (e.g., applied research in economic geography is at risk of being absorbed within economics).
• It does not offer a viable alternative to scientific geography; instead, the humanistic approach is best understood as a form of criticism rather than a replacement or alternative to geography.

Welfare Approach

• The welfare approach concept was first introduced by a British geographer named Smith from Dandee University in Scotland in 1971. He authored a book called "An Introduction to the Geography of Social Well-being." Smith was critical of the quantitative revolution in geography and believed that models and theories should contribute to the welfare of society for them to be relevant. Accordingly, he proposed welfare geography as an alternative model within the critical revolution.
• Smith argued that the focus of geographical investigation should be on the well-being of social beings, as this is essential for the survival of the discipline. His work was later reinforced by the optimality model developed by economist Pareto in 1973. Both Smith and Pareto advocated for a proportional increase in income and a reduction in inequality as GDP grows.
• Amartya Sen, an influential economist, also supported the idea of a welfare economy in the Indian subcontinent. In 1977, Smith published another book titled "Human Geography: A Welfare Approach," further emphasizing the importance of considering social well-being in geographical studies.

Welfarism & Smith’s Welfare Concept

• S.K. Nath, an Indian origin British Geographer (1973) defined Welfare Geography in the following terms – “Welfare Geography is that part of Geography where we study the possible effects of various geographical policies on the welfare of society”
• Geographical policy basically means the impact of geographical attributes on the society e.g. studying about earthquake, volcanoes, etc help in developing policies for Disaster Management.

Smith’s Welfare Concept

• Smith’s Welfare concept is a great contribution in the field of welfare geography
• He has directed four attributes of investigations to the study i.e. Who, What, Where, and How
  • Who – Identification of downtrodden, retarded, underprivileged people in the society
  • What – Identification of development preferences of welfare
  • Where – Identification of Place
  • How – Identification of method for the execution of welfare programme.
• In short, also known as – Who gets What, Where, and How.
• But these attributes faced a lot of interferences – legal, illegal, political, etc, due to which welfare measures are not properly implemented.
• Most of the developing countries face this problem. Economic disparity is increasing in developing countries.
• Smith has given 3-dimensional models for his concept.
  

Basis of Welfare Geography

• Welfare Geography is based on
  • Non-discrimination
  • Ecological parity and well-being
  • Social justice
  • Equal status to women
  • Protection to children and old
  • Secular society
  • Physical quality of life
• Thus, welfare geography seeks equanimous positions for all human beings with the good physical quality of life, distributive justice, protection of their natural life i.e. an egalitarian Society
• Welfare Geography is based on 4 principles –
  • Humanism
  • Radicalism
  • Post-behaviouralism
  • Existentialism
• The aim was welfare status and prosperity for all and to achieve this, mapping of regions was done using Human Development Indicators
• Scandinavian countries were the first to adopt this approach and it was taken up by others as well.

Welfare vs. Radical Approach

• Though the origin of both was same, their methodology and objectives were different
  
• Also, unlike the radical approach, the welfare approach also gave some solutions under the existing societal setup.

Criticisms

• Welfare geography, as a sub-discipline, has played a significant role in bringing geography closer to society's welfare and development. However, it has faced several criticisms, primarily due to its focus on socio-economic factors rather than geographical orientation. This has led some geographers to argue that welfare geography neglects traditional geographical parameters and should be considered a part of applied geography instead.
• Another challenge faced by welfare geography is the difficulty in demarcating welfare regions, as the definition of welfare varies across different contexts. Additionally, the availability of reliable data for measuring welfare can be limited. Since welfare geography adopts a qualitative approach, quantifying and measuring aspects of welfare can be challenging.
• In summary, despite its contributions to understanding societal welfare and development, welfare geography has faced criticism for its emphasis on socio-economic factors at the expense of traditional geographical parameters. Furthermore, defining and measuring welfare regions can be challenging due to the qualitative nature of the approach and varying definitions of welfare.

In conclusion, the radical, humanistic, and welfare approaches in geography emerged during the Critical Revolution as alternatives to traditional and quantitative perspectives. These approaches have contributed to a deeper understanding of social issues, human behavior, and societal welfare in geographical studies. Despite facing criticisms, such as neglecting traditional geographical parameters or lacking a solid theoretical base, these approaches have played crucial roles in shaping the discipline of geography and addressing complex global problems. As the discipline continues to evolve, these approaches will undoubtedly continue to influence and inform geographical research and policy-making.

Behavioural Geography

Introduction

• By the mid-1960s, geographers had largely accepted the use of statistical techniques in research for its precision. The debate between systematic and regional geography was resolved, with both recognized as important and interdependent components of the discipline.
• However, geographers increasingly realized that the models developed using quantitative techniques often provided inadequate descriptions of geographic reality and the man-environment relationship. This led to slow progress in developing geographical theory, which had weak predictive powers.
• Theories like Central Place Theory, based on statistical and mathematical methods, were found insufficient in explaining the spatial organization of society. The concept of economic rationality in decision-making was also criticized for not accurately depicting human behavior.
• A psychological shift in human geography emphasized the role of subjective decision-making processes in mediating the relationship between environment and human spatial behavior. This dissatisfaction with positivist models based on economic rationality gave rise to the behavioral approach in geography.
• Wolpert challenged the notion of the "economic person" who always seeks to maximize profit. In his study on Swedish farmers, he found that optimal farming practices were often unattainable, leading to the conclusion that farmers were not always optimizers but rather satisficers. This perspective highlighted that human behavior is influenced by decision-making processes, which are often characterized by incomplete information and imperfect choices, yet still lead to satisfaction with sub-optimal outcomes.

Behaviouralism in Geography

• Behavioural geography heavily relies on the concept of "behaviouralism," which is an inductive approach aimed at forming general statements based on observations of ongoing processes. The core idea of the behavioural approach in geography is that people's behaviour is shaped by their understanding of the environment they live in or by the environment they confront.
• In behavioural geography, the explanation for the man-environment problem is based on the close relationship between environmental cognition and behaviour. This approach suggests that a deeper understanding of man-environment interaction can be achieved by examining the psychological processes through which individuals come to know their environment and how these processes influence their behaviour.

One notable application of behavioural geography is in studying how people perceive environmental hazards. Robert Kates' pioneering work on floodplain management in 1962 laid the foundation for this aspect of behavioural geography. He emphasized that the way individuals perceive the uncertainty and unpredictability of their environment significantly influences their decision-making processes. Kates developed a scheme relevant to various aspects of human behaviour based on four key assumptions:

• Individuals are rational decision-makers.
• People make choices.
• Choices are based on knowledge.
• Information is evaluated against pre-determined criteria.

Furthermore, Kirk (1952-1963) contributed one of the earliest behavioural models, suggesting that the same information in space and time would hold different meanings for individuals from diverse socio-economic, cultural, and ethnic backgrounds living in similar geographical settings. Each person reacts differently to information about resources, space, and the environment.

• For instance, consider the highly productive Indo-Gangetic plains, which hold different meanings for individuals of various castes, creeds, and religions. Farmers like Jats, Gujjars, Ahirs, Sainis, Jhojas, and Gadas, living in the same village, perceive their environment differently. A Jat farmer may prefer to sow sugarcane, while a Gada and Jhoja might grow sugarcane, wheat, and rice. An Ahir focuses on fodder crops for milch animals, and a Saini is usually interested in intensive cultivation, especially of vegetables. For a Saini, even five acres of arable land may be considered a large holding, whereas a Jat using a tractor might view 25 acres as a small holding. Thus, the perceived environment of each farmer differs in terms of space and time, even though they live in the same geographical area.
• Geographers enthusiastically adopted the concept of mental maps from behavioural analysis. Peter Gould's 1966 paper was a significant contribution in this regard. Gould argued that decisions regarding location are influenced by how individuals perceive their environment. Mental maps are not merely images or maps but a combination of information and interpretation that a person has about a particular place and how they perceive it.
• Gould suggested that mental maps provide insights into a person's spatial preferences and the processes leading to specific decisions. They offer a key to understanding some of the structures, patterns, and processes of human activity on the Earth's surface.

The conceptual framework proposed by Downs in 1970 illustrates this idea. It suggests that information from the real world is filtered through personality, culture, beliefs, and cognitive variables to form an image in the mind of the individual using the environment. Based on this mental image, the person makes decisions and utilizes resources to meet their basic and higher needs. Downs' framework also distinguishes between the 'objective' and 'behavioural' environments.

Figure 1
Environmental Perception and Behaviour (after Downs, 1970

In 1969, Pred offered an alternative perspective to the behavioralists' inductive approach concerning the theory of the "economic man." In his work titled "Behavior and Location," he introduces the concept of a behavioral matrix to provide a structured framework for analyzing location decisions. The matrix is defined by two axes:
- Quality and Quantity of Information Available
- Ability to Use that Information
In this framework, the "economic man" is positioned at the upper right corner of the matrix. However, the position of individuals on this axis can vary based on the quantity and quality of information they possess. An individual's position is influenced by factors such as aspiration levels, experiences, and the norms of the group to which they belong. Pred also notes that even the same individual may not occupy the same position at different times, as their decisions can vary over time. This variability is due to the dynamic nature of spatial patterns, which are never static.

Figure 2
Behavioural Matrix for Locational Decision Making (after Pred, 1969) 

Evolution and Current State of Behavioural Geography

Recent research in behavioural geography has explored topics such as environmental learning, spatial search, developmental issues in spatial cognition and cartography, and Golledge's significant work with disabled and sight-impaired individuals (1993). However, the field has lost some of its previous shine. This decline may be attributed to several factors:

• Methodological Sensibilities: The shift in methodological preferences within post-positivist human geography.
• Socialized Nature of Geographical Knowledge: The growing belief in the inherently socialized nature of geographical knowledge, which challenges the individualistic focus of psychological models.
• Scepticism Towards Observation and Measurement: A skepticism regarding the adequacy of an epistemology based solely on observation and measurement, which may overlook non-observable and non-measurable contexts and ideological formations.

Despite these challenges, behavioural geography maintains a lasting legacy, thoroughly documented and integrated in the extensive work of Golledge and Stimson (1997).

Objectives of the Behavioral Approach

1. To create models for human phenomena that offer an alternative to spatial location theories influenced by positivism.
2. To define the cognitive (subjective) environment that shapes human decision-making processes.
3. To develop psychological and social theories of human decision-making and behavior within a spatial framework.
4. To shift the focus from aggregate populations to the disaggregate scale of individuals and small groups.
5. To explore methods beyond those popular during the quantitative revolution for uncovering latent structures in data and decision-making.
6. To prioritize process explanations over structural ones in understanding human activity and the physical environment.
7. To generate primary data on human behavior rather than relying heavily on published data.
8. To adopt an interdisciplinary approach for theory-building and problem-solving.
   

Fundamental Arguments of Behavioral Geography:

• People possess environmental images.
• Researchers can accurately identify these images.
• There is a strong connection between environmental images and actual behavior or the decision-making process.

Figure 3
A Conventional Model of Man-Environment Relationship (after Boulding, 1956)

Salient Features of Behavioural Geography

The salient features of behavioural geography are discussed in the following section:

Objective and Behavioral Environments:

• Behavioural geographers emphasize the difference between objective environment(the actual physical world) and behavioural environment(how individuals perceive and interpret that world).
• The objective environment is measurable and observable through direct means, like our senses, while the behavioural environment is subjective, shaped by individual perceptions and experiences.
• Decision-making and actions are based on the behavioural environment, which may not accurately reflect the objective reality but influences how people interact with their surroundings.
• For example, two people might perceive the same park differently based on their past experiences, leading to different decisions about how to use the space.
• The distinction between these environments highlights the importance of perception in understanding human behaviour and decision-making.

Focus on the Individual:

• Behavioural geography emphasizes the role of the individual in shaping and responding to the physical and social environment.
• Research in this field focuses on how individual actions, even if small or unintentional, impact the environment.
• For example, a person's decision to plant a tree in their backyard, no matter how minor, contributes to the larger environmental landscape.
• Behavioural geographers argue that individuals are goal-directed and influence their surroundings while being influenced by them in return.
• This perspective highlights the mutual relationship between people and their environment, where each shapes the other over time.

Mutual Interaction between Man and Environment:

• Behavioural geography posits a mutually interacting relationship between humans and their environment, where each influences and shapes the other.
• This concept emphasizes the dynamic and reciprocal nature of the relationship, where human actions impact the environment, and changes in the environment, in turn, affect human behaviour.
• For example, urban development alters natural landscapes, while population growth and migration influence how cities expand and develop.
• Behavioural geography explores this interplay, examining how various factors like culture, technology, and social norms shape the way people interact with and modify their surroundings.

Multidisciplinary Approach:

• Behavioural geography adopts a multidisciplinary outlook, drawing on concepts and theories from various fields such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, and philosophy.
• This approach enriches the understanding of human behaviour and its impact on the environment by incorporating diverse perspectives and methodologies.
• For example, insights from psychology about perception and decision-making can inform how people interact with their surroundings.
• Despite its multidisciplinary nature, behavioural geography faces challenges due to the lack of its own theoretical frameworks, which can hinder its rapid development.
• However, the integration of ideas from different disciplines contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between humans and their environment.

Scientific Relationship Between Man and Environment:

• Behavioural geography aims to establish a scientific relationship between humans and their environment by systematically studying how individuals perceive, interpret, and interact with their surroundings.
• This field examines the processes through which people make decisions and take actions based on their perceptions of the environment.
• For instance, understanding how urban dwellers perceive green spaces can inform city planning and environmental conservation efforts.
• By focusing on the scientific aspects of human-environment interactions, behavioural geography contributes to a deeper understanding of the complex dynamics at play.
• The broad scope of behavioural geography, even by the standards of human geography, highlights its potential to shed light on various aspects of the relationship between people and their environments.

Question for Radical, Behavioural, Human & Welfare Approaches

Try yourself:

Which of the following best describes the concept of the behavioral environment in behavioral geography?

• A.

  It is the physical world that can be directly observed and measured.
• B.

  It is how individuals perceive and interpret the objective environment.
• C.

  It is the social interactions that influence human decision-making.
• D.

  It refers to the geographical features that shape human behavior.

Explanation

- The behavioral environment in behavioral geography refers to how individuals subjectively perceive and interpret the physical world around them.
- It is shaped by personal experiences, beliefs, and perceptions, influencing decision-making and behavior.
- This concept highlights the importance of understanding how individuals interact with and respond to their surroundings.

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Criticisms of Behavioural Geography

While behavioural geography offers valuable insights, it faces several criticisms:

• Urban and Developed Country Bias: There is a noticeable bias in content towards urban topics and developed countries, which limits the applicability of findings to diverse settings.
• Poor Synthesis and Communication: Behavioural geography struggles with synthesizing empirical findings, leading to issues like poor communication, inadvertent duplication, and conflicting terminology. Concepts within this field are often loosely defined and poorly integrated due to a lack of a systematically organized theoretical basis.
• Laboratory Experiment Limitations: A significant drawback is the reliance on data generated from laboratory experiments on animals, which are then directly applied to human behavior. This approach, as criticized by Koestler (1975), risks oversimplifying complex human faculties by drawing inappropriate parallels between animals and humans.
• Ego-Centered Interpretations: Behavioural geography often emphasizes ego-centered interpretations of the environment, raising questions about the validity of environmental images used in research. The assumptions that these images can be accurately measured and that there is a strong relationship between revealed images and actual behavior are contested due to a lack of supporting research.
• Theory-Practice Gap: There is a significant gap between theory and practice in behavioural geography, particularly concerning public policy. Behavioural geographers often act as observers rather than active participants in planning processes, lacking knowledge of planning theories and methods. This gap hinders their involvement in practical applications of their research.
• Methodological Limitations: Despite its constraints, behavioural geography is recognized within the positivist orientation. It aims to explain spatial patterns by establishing generalizations about people-environment relationships, which can inform environmental planning activities. However, the research methods employed can vary widely, and the field continues to seek a more powerful and cohesive theory.

In summary, while behavioural geography contributes to our understanding of spatial behavior, it must address these criticisms to enhance its relevance and applicability in real-world contextso.