Urban Developments | Geography Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Hierarchy of Urban Settlements

The Urban System concept, introduced by Brian J.L. Berry in his influential work "Cities as systems within systems of cities" (1964), highlights the interconnectedness of towns and cities. Urban places are not isolated entities; they have various relationships with one another, and the term "urban system" encapsulates these connections between individual urban centers. An urban system can be described as a network of interdependent urban places.
The concept of urban hierarchy is based on the notion that urban places differ in terms of population size and economic functions. Analyzing urban hierarchy involves ranking cities according to specific criteria, such as population size, economic power, retail sales, and the number of industrial workers.
Urban settlements can be arranged in a hierarchical structure, with the size of the urban population determining their placement from top to bottom. This classification is based on three main factors:

• Population size: Larger cities are generally higher up in the hierarchy, while smaller towns and cities are lower down.
• Functions performed: The economic and social roles that urban places perform, such as being a center for trade or a hub for manufacturing, also impact their position in the hierarchy.
• Sphere of influence: The extent to which an urban place influences its surrounding area through its economic, political, and cultural presence also plays a role in determining its hierarchical position.

In summary, the Urban System concept emphasizes the interconnectedness of urban places and the relationships between them. The urban hierarchy is an analytical tool used to rank and classify cities based on their population size, functions performed, and sphere of influence.

Hierarchy Based on Size or Services

• A settlement hierarchy is a way to categorize and organize various settlements based on their size and the services they provide. This classification system demonstrates the gradual progression of settlements from rural to semi-urban and finally to urban areas. As you move up the hierarchy, the size of the settlement and the distance between similar-sized settlements increase. For example, there are more conurbations than cities, more cities than towns, and more towns than villages.
• The range of services offered by a settlement tends to increase as its size grows. Smaller settlements typically provide only basic, low-order services such as post offices, doctors' offices, and newsagents. Larger towns, cities, and conurbations, on the other hand, offer a broader range of both low and high-order services including leisure centers, chain stores, and hospitals.
• The sphere of influence of a settlement, or the area from which it attracts people due to the facilities it offers, also expands as the settlement size increases. Larger settlements and conurbations have a more extensive sphere of influence compared to smaller ones. For instance, major cities like London have a global sphere of influence, while a small village or hamlet may only draw people from within a few kilometers.

In summary, a settlement hierarchy is a classification system based on the size and services of various settlements. As settlements grow in size, they offer more services and have a larger sphere of influence, attracting people from greater distances.

Hierarchy Based on Size or Services

Settlement Hierarchies

Settlements in order of Size

• Polis refers to a thriving village or town that has recently transitioned into an urban center. As Polis continues to grow and evolve into a larger town, it may be referred to as Eopolis.
• Metropolis represents not just a single city, but rather an interconnected network of towns, cities, and conurbations made up of villages. These areas are economically and socially integrated with strong functional linkages.
• Tyrranopolis is a term used to describe a city or urban area where life becomes miserable due to inadequate services and civic amenities.
• Nekropolis refers to cities that have been abandoned and transformed into 'ghost cities.' This process is known as deurbanization.
• A Megalopolis is a large, sprawling chain of urban cities or centers, typically seen in countries like the United States (e.g., the Philadelphia-New York-Boston corridor) and Japan (e.g., the six-million-plus cities of Tokyo, Osaka, Kobe, and others). In India, there is potential for a Megalopolis to develop between Mumbai and Ahmedabad, encompassing cities like Surat, Vadodara, Anand, and others.
• To better understand these terms and the distinctions between rural and urban settlements, it is recommended to read articles on the topic, such as those found in Rupa Made Simple Economic and Social Geography.
• Also read Rupa Made Simple Economic and Social Geog:

Hierarchy Based on Administrative Regions

Hierarchy Bases on Administrative Regions

Urban Morphology

• Urban Morphology is the analysis of the internal structure and layout of a city, including its residential areas, road networks, and other physical components such as entertainment spaces, community lands, and marketplaces. This field of study is concerned with how cities evolve and expand over time, as well as the social and historical processes that shape their development.
• Urbanization, on the other hand, is the transformation of a landscape from a rural, agricultural setting to an industrial, commercial one, and from a village environment to an urban one. Urban Morphology is a subfield of urban ecology, which examines the relationships between various elements within an urban system.
• In simpler terms, Urban Morphology can be thought of as a city's physical blueprint, identifying the different land uses within the urban landscape. This discipline helps us understand the development of cities and their internal structures, as well as the factors that influence their growth and change.

Urban Land Use

• Urban land use involves the analysis of various activities taking place within a city, as well as their density, intensity, and concentration in specific locations. This analysis helps to determine the patterns of activities such as retail, management, manufacturing, and residential areas within the urban landscape.
• The diagram below illustrates that residential areas are often situated at a certain distance from the city center, as city centers tend to be crowded and bustling with commercial activities. Light manufacturing industries, such as those producing utensils and jewelry, are typically located closer to the city center.
• In contrast, heavy manufacturing industries are placed further away from the city center due to their extensive land requirements and the pollution they generate. This spatial arrangement ensures that the negative effects of these industries are minimized for the urban population.
• Market land use, which refers to the areas designated for retail and commercial activities, is generally concentrated near the city center. This is because markets require a dense consumer base for their businesses to thrive, and city centers provide this high concentration of potential customers. As the distance from the city center increases, the prevalence of market land use tends to decrease.
• In summary, urban land use is the study of the distribution, density, and concentration of various activities within a city. This analysis helps to determine the locations of residential, commercial, and industrial areas, with residential and heavy manufacturing sectors typically situated further away from the city center, while light manufacturing and market land use are concentrated closer to the urban core.
•  The urban land use can be studied under the following heads:

Theories of Urban Morphology
Urban geographers have significantly contributed to understanding the spatial transformations in urban landscapes, both materially and symbolically, throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Some of the most notable efforts in this area include the analyses of urban morphology conducted by Burgess, Hoyt, Harris, and Ullman. While contemporary cities have undergone significant changes since these models were developed, they are still frequently referenced in urban morphology discussions, even if only to question their ongoing relevance.
It is true that many cities feature a unique blend of various land uses, but some common patterns can sometimes be identified. The models provided by Burgess, Hoyt, Harris, and Ullman are now considered fundamental concepts in urban geography, and discussing them is essential for understanding the basic principles of this field.
There are three primary theoretical explanations for the morphological patterns of a city:
1. The Concentric Zone Model
2. The Sector Model
3. The Multiple Nuclei Model

These models help to better understand and explain the organization and development of urban spaces, even though they may not always perfectly align with contemporary urban landscapes. Nonetheless, they remain vital components of the study of urban geography and its underlying foundations.

1. Concentric Zone Model

The Concentric Zone Model, proposed by Ernest Burgess and Parks in 1925, is a theory that aims to explain the structure and growth of cities. This model is a product of the Chicago School of thought and is based on land use patterns observed in urban areas. Burgess developed the model after studying the land use patterns in Chicago, and he idealized this pattern to create a model for Urban Morphology.

The Concentric Zone Model is a conceptual framework that explains how urban land use patterns are spatially concentrated and change with increasing distance from the city center. Burgess made several assumptions in developing his model, including:

• The area being studied has an isotropic surface, meaning it doesn't have any topographic variability.
• All individuals are considered economically rational and act accordingly.
• All transportation routes converge at the city center.
• Each part of the city has equal accessibility.
• The city has a circular geometrical shape.

According to the model, a city develops around a central commercial hub called the Central Business District (CBD), surrounded by concentric zones of different land uses. The model suggests that residents of the inner city tend to move outward to zones with better environmental conditions as the city expands. Burgess identified five key zones in the urban landscape:

• Central Business District (CBD) - The commercial heart of the city.
• Zone in Transition - An area where land use is shifting, often characterized by mixed residential and commercial properties.
• Working Men's Homes - A zone consisting primarily of housing for working-class residents.
• Residential Zone - A zone with predominantly middle-class and upper-class housing.
• Commuter's Zone - A suburban area where residents primarily commute to the city for work.

In summary, the Concentric Zone Model is a theoretical framework that describes the spatial organization of cities, with different land uses radiating outward from the city center. The model is based on several assumptions and has been widely used to understand and explain urban growth and development.

Zone I – Central Business District (CBD)

• Term ‘Central Business District’ was coined by Murphy.
• It is an exclusive commercial area where all the wholesale retail marketing is located.
• It has government offices, corporate office and headquarters of various organizations, agencies.
• It has maximum intensity of land use and very high land rentals.
• All major transportation routes converge at Central Business District.
• There is very rapid vertical growth with high rise and sky scrappers
• After office hours, when commercial centers seize to function, the Central Business District becomes dead heart/zone.
• Examples:
  • World-Down Town in Anglo America, Central cultural district in East Europe, Russia.
  • India- Rajiv Chauk in Delhi.
• Central Business District usually has old and traditional shops having costliest items, antiques and finest handicrafts. Example- Jaipur.

Zone II – Transitional zone:

• Light Industries and slums mainly occupy this zone. This zone is characterized by mixed land use pattern.
• Industrial workers tend to settle here and it can develop slums and ghettos.
• It is one of the most polluted zones of the city.
• The settlement in this zone has shabby look and high room density.
• After Central Business District, it represents the oldest part of city.

Zone III – Workmen Housing:

• It represents skilled middle class residential area, who work in manufacturing industries and have higher income than industrial wage earner.
• They live in better condition than industrial wage earners.

Zone IV – Residential Zone:

• This zone involves the housing of upper class people.
• Rich people tend to live away from city crowding to avoid urban miseries like pollution, congestion, etc.
• It is the area of neo rich class people.
• This zone has institutional area, parks etc.
• This zone has better civil amenities, health centres, farm houses, and extensive residential quarters.
• Rich can afford to commute to and fro from Central Business District because of development of transportation.

Zone V – Commuter’s Zone:

• It has scattered upper-class house colonies and hypermarkets, suburbs.
• Here wholesale purchase of grains and vegetables is done. The dwellings of daily workers also exist in this zone.

Process of Development of Concentric Zones

• Initially, the high income people prefer to live around the vicinity and around commercial district.
• Because of employment prospects, the Central Business District attracts poor migrants who gradually invade the space.
• The rich population is forced to move out successively to occupy more open environment and less congestion and less polluted locations.
• The middle class population are generally 2nd/3rd generation migrants who again displace the rich and high class population further outwards.
• The rich people can afford to move to and from Central Business District because of development of motorway transportation.

Critical evaluation of Concentric Zone Model

• The Concentric Zone Model is a normative model, meaning that it presents an idealized, theoretical representation of a city. However, urban land use is much more complex than what this model suggests. The model is primarily based on European cities, and it is more closely related to the pre-industrial towns found in Europe.
• Furthermore, the Concentric Zone Model is more applicable to smaller cities with populations greater than 100,000 but may not be as relevant for larger urban areas. One significant limitation of this model is that it does not take into account transportation lines, which often play a crucial role in a city's expansion
• As a result of these shortcomings, the Sectoral Model was proposed by Hoyt and Davis as an alternative approach to better understand urban land use and growth patterns.

2. Sectoral Model

• This model was proposed by Hoyt and Davis. This model takes into account the development of urban centres along major transportation lines.
• Here urban morphology is determined by the network of routes that develop within the city.
• The city in this model is never concentric rather divided into sectors.

Central Business District (CBD)- Zone 1

• It is the central core of city with circular geometric shape.
• It has no residential usage, only wholesale marketing, headquarters, government building etc are located.
• It is also called blighted part of city because during the night darkness prevails in the building and it becomes no man’s land.
• It is the costliest part of the city.
• Such CBD are the product of industrial revolution and they generally have a planned development model. E.g. Connaught Place New Delhi.

Light manufacturing industries- Zone 2

• This zone consists of light and small scale manufacturing industries and has the mixed pattern of land use with commercial and residential purposes.
• The retail and wholesale market are located in this zone.
• This zone develops along the major communication/transportation lines.
• This zone is usually developed along the main artery connecting city centre.
• It is also one the most polluted areas of the city with high traffic congestion, noisy traffic and slum development.

Lower class residential area (Poor housing)- Zone 3

• This zone is the residential area of the factory workers who work in Zone 2.
• This zone consists of people with low income and has the highest room density with shanty towns and slums.

Middle-class dwelling (Medium housing)- Zone 4

• This zone has better civic amenities than previous two zones.
• It is less polluted and has workers with high income level.

Upper-class residential areas- Zone 5

• This zone is developed along major transportation lines.
• People working in CBD with higher income lives here.
• This zone has easy and direct connectivity with city.
• Professional engineers, doctors, professors, service sector (managers) lives here.

Thus, in Sectoral Model the concentric pattern gets distorted because of the presence of major roads that encourage agglomeration and expansion of certain categories of land uses.
Light manufacturing and supporting labor and worker class expand along a transportation corridor. E.g. Mathura Road (Delhi-Faridabad-Mathura-Agra Highway), NH2 has this type of expansion, whereas, along a well-planned corridor that develops into an expressway or “Boulevard”, the affluent population may prefer to agglomerate. E.g. Jaipur Highway (through Gurgaon-Manesar).

Critical Evaluation

• The Sectoral model is limited in its ability to project the growth of metropolises and megacities, as it is more appropriate for smaller, district-level towns. This is because million-plus cities often have multiple central business districts (CBDs), due to the diverse range of economic functions they host and the need to accommodate large populations.
• European cities that developed during the post-industrial revolution, which are often semi-planned, generally align more closely with the Sectoral model. In India, this model is applicable to certain state capitals and larger district towns.
• However, due to the limitations of the Sectoral model, Harris and Edward Ullman developed the "Multiple Nuclei Model" to better address the complexities of urban growth and development.

3. Multiple Nuclei Model

The Multiple Nuclei Model was proposed by Harris and Edward Ullman in their book "Nature of Cities" as an alternative to the models of Burgess and Hoyt, which focused on the expansion and development of urban centers around a single Central Business District (CBD). The authors argued that due to the large territorial extent and the diversity of functions in modern cities, it is not feasible for a single CBD to cater to the entire population.
In the Multiple Nuclei Model, different commercial centers tend to specialize in certain functions, rather than offering a full range of commercial activities. As a result, cities have more than one CBD, allowing highly diversified economic functions to be distributed across a larger geographical area.
According to Harris and Ullman, a city consists of the following ten zones:

• Central Business District: The main commercial center of the city, which typically hosts a variety of businesses and services.
• Light Manufacturing Zone: An area dedicated to industries that produce goods with relatively low environmental impact, such as clothing or electronics.
• Lower-Class Housing: Residential areas that primarily cater to low-income families and individuals.
• Middle-Class Housing: Residential areas that cater to middle-income families and individuals.
• Upper-Class Housing: Residential areas that cater to high-income families and individuals.
• Heavy Manufacturing Industries: An area dedicated to industries that produce goods with significant environmental impact, such as steel or chemicals.
• Second CBD or Urban Hub: An additional commercial center that complements the main CBD, often focused on modern urban services and amenities.
• Residential Suburb: Suburban neighborhoods that primarily serve as bedroom communities for people who work in the city.
• Industrial Suburbs: Outlying areas that host industries and manufacturing facilities, often with good access to transportation infrastructure.
• Commuters Zone: Areas on the outskirts of the city that primarily serve as residential communities for people who commute to work in the urban center.

In summary, the Multiple Nuclei Model presents a more realistic view of modern urban development by considering the existence of multiple commercial centers and the distribution of different economic functions across a larger geographical area.

Application

• The Multiple Nuclei Theory can be applied to mega cities that have experienced significant urban industrial growth, encompassing a vast geographical area, and are currently in a phase of expansion and transition. This model is particularly relevant for modern and planned cities in the United States and Europe.
• The implementation of this theory promotes better urban policy, as the presence of multiple central business districts (CBDs) disperses the urban population and prevents overcrowding in a single area. Many metropolitan cities in India, for example, closely resemble the Multiple Nuclei Theory.
• In most modern urban centers, high-end retail outlets and large shopping malls tend to repel wholesale and grain trading businesses. Similarly, electronic and computer peripheral stores often cluster in separate commercial areas. One example can be found in Delhi-NCR, where the original CBD is located in the walled city at Chandani Chowk, while South-Ex serves as a center for high-end retail and Nehru Place specializes in electronics and computer peripherals.
• Additionally, the commercial and residential suburbs of Gurgaon and Noida have established their own CBDs, further supporting the Multiple Nuclei Theory. This model demonstrates the benefits of creating multiple focal points within a city, allowing for more efficient distribution of resources, services, and population, ultimately leading to improved urban planning and development.

Application of All Three Models

• None of the models have an absolute resemblance to any city but their partial application can be summarized as:
  • Concentric Zone Theory by Burgess is applicable in small cities and towns like Banaras, Kanchipuram, Gaya, etc.
  • Sectoral model is applicable to district towns or the towns with quasi planning and may be the capital cities (state capitals). Example- Jaipur, Chandigarh to some extent.
  • The Multiple Nuclei Model is applicable to all megacities and planned cities.

Some Criticism of All Models

• The models do not take into account the impact of political, cultural, or historical factors on the urban structure and development. For instance, cities that have experienced significant historical events, such as wars or colonization, may have unique patterns that do not fit the models.
• The models are static and do not consider the dynamic nature of urban growth, transformation, and decline. Cities are constantly changing, and the models do not provide insights into the processes driving these changes or the potential future development of urban areas.
• The models do not address the issue of social and environmental sustainability in urban development. Issues such as pollution, inequality, and access to resources and amenities are critical considerations in contemporary urban planning, yet they are not addressed in the models.
• The models assume a monocentric city structure, with a single central business district (CBD) and concentric zones radiating outwards. However, many cities have developed multiple CBDs and have more complex spatial patterns, which are not captured by the models.
• The models do not consider the impact of technological advancements on urban form and development, such as the role of telecommunications and the internet in shaping contemporary urban spaces.
• The models are based on a generalization of cities, and as such, they may not accurately represent the specific characteristics of individual cities. Each city has its own unique history, geography, and socio-economic context, which may result in unique urban patterns that do not conform to the models.

In conclusion, while the Burgess, Hoyt, and Harris and Ullman models have provided valuable insights into the structure and development of cities, their limitations must be recognized. They may not accurately represent the complexity and diversity of urban areas, and they do not address many of the contemporary challenges faced by cities in terms of sustainability, technology, and socio-economic dynamics. As such, urban planners and researchers must approach these models with caution and consider other factors and perspectives when analyzing urban development.

Internal Structure of Cities Across Cultural Comparison

• In Russia, large open spaces called "Parades" are commonly found in central business districts (CBDs) and are primarily used for assembly and political gatherings, especially in communal regimes. 
• Prominent examples of such spaces can be found in cities like Moscow and Leningrad, as well as Beijing in China. These vast grounds are often surrounded by official buildings and are sometimes referred to as "Comrades."

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Urban System concept and urban hierarchy play a significant role in understanding the interconnectedness of urban settlements and their organization based on size and services. The Concentric Zone Model, Sectoral Model, and Multiple Nuclei Model have provided valuable insights into the structure and development of cities, although they have limitations in addressing contemporary urban challenges. The internal structure of cities can vary across different cultures, as seen in examples from Russia and China. Therefore, urban planners and researchers must approach these models with caution and consider other factors and perspectives when analyzing urban development.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Urban Developments

What is the Urban System concept, and how does it relate to the urban hierarchy?

The Urban System concept, introduced by Brian J.L. Berry, highlights the interconnectedness of towns and cities. Urban places are not isolated entities; they have various relationships with one another, and the term "urban system" encapsulates these connections between individual urban centers. The urban hierarchy is an analytical tool used to rank and classify cities based on their population size, functions performed, and sphere of influence, which are factors that determine a city's position within the urban system.

What is a settlement hierarchy, and how does it categorize settlements?

A settlement hierarchy is a classification system based on the size and services of various settlements. As settlements grow in size, they offer more services and have a larger sphere of influence, attracting people from greater distances. Settlements are organized from rural to semi-urban and finally to urban areas, demonstrating the gradual progression of settlements.

What are the three primary theoretical explanations for the morphological patterns of a city?

The three primary theoretical explanations for the morphological patterns of a city are the Concentric Zone Model, the Sector Model, and the Multiple Nuclei Model. These models help to better understand and explain the organization and development of urban spaces, even though they may not always perfectly align with contemporary urban landscapes.

What are the limitations of the Concentric Zone Model, Sector Model, and Multiple Nuclei Model?

The limitations of these models include their assumptions of a monocentric city structure, their static nature, their inability to account for historical, cultural, and political factors in urban development, and their lack of consideration for social and environmental sustainability, technological advancements, and the unique characteristics of individual cities. These models are based on generalizations of cities, and as such, they may not accurately represent the complexity and diversity of urban areas.

How do the internal structures of cities vary across different cultures and countries?

The internal structures of cities can vary significantly across different cultures and countries due to factors such as historical events, political systems, geographical conditions, and socio-economic contexts. For example, in Russia and China, large open spaces called "Parades" or "Comrades" can be found in central business districts and are used for assembly and political gatherings. These unique urban patterns may not conform to the general models of urban development and highlight the importance of considering specific cultural and historical contexts when analyzing urban structures.