Political Theory: Meaning | PSIR Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

What is Political Theory?

• Political theory is a crucial part of understanding political phenomena. However, scholars have had different perspectives on its subject matter, nature, and scope over time. Political theory has evolved from speculation and philosophical consensus to a more conflict-ridden and fragmented understanding of the 'political.' This evolution has expanded the focus from a narrow emphasis on the state and government to a broader domain that transcends traditional political and social boundaries.
• The relationship between empirical and normative aspects has also changed, with a growing agreement on their mutual engagement. This paper explores the shifting contours of political theory by examining the evolving notion of the 'political' and its impact on the role of political theory.
• Political theory consists of two components: 'political' and 'theory.' The meaning, nature, and scope of political theory depend on the changing interpretations of these concepts. This essay serves as an introduction to the field of political theory, discussing the definitions and meanings attributed to it, as well as the changes that have occurred over the years.

Understanding 'Theory'

• An explanatory statement alone does not constitute a theory.
• Not all theories are explanations.

For instance, if we claim that honour killing exists in certain parts of India due to patriarchy, it explains honour killing but does not constitute a theory of it. Theory delves deeper into issues and goes beyond mere explanations. Some theories may explain or justify actions, but not all do. Bhargava emphasizes the larger evaluative questions behind these justifications. For example, if we explain honour killing as a result of patriarchy, we might also need to justify the necessity of gender equality or other forms of equality related to gender.

So, how do we define theory? Theory is a broad term that implies "an explanatory proposition, an idea or set of ideas that seeks to impose order or meaning upon phenomena." In the 19th century, 'theory' had a negative connotation, associated with speculations or 'untested facts.' However, theory has always been linked with philosophy and knowledge, dating back to thinkers like Plato and Aristotle. In Greek philosophy, 'theoria' referred to a spectacle or event, contrasting with the modern application of theories, especially after the influence of natural sciences.

Bhargava defines theory as "a particular form of language-dependent systematic expression," highlighting its connection to reflections on events or experiences rather than mere explanations. Theorizing is seen as a human ability to understand the world through concepts, images, and representations, distinguishing human life from other species. However, not all reflections qualify as theory. Theory is different from thoughtful reflections and is characterized by six distinctive features:

1. Conceptual sensitivity
2. Rational structure
3. Aspiration for a humanly achievable truth and objectivity
4. Generality
5. Uncovering assumptions and presuppositions
6. Strong non-speculative intent

Conceptual sensitivity involves a careful examination of the internal structure of concepts and their relationships. Theories should possess a rational structure, with reasons and chains of reasons forming the basis of the theory. The aspiration for truth and objectivity varies between disciplines, with social theories acknowledging the near impossibility of escaping subjectivism. Generality in theories means they should cover a wide range of related phenomena. Additionally, theories should not be purely speculative but grounded in empirical phenomena and lived experiences.

Shaun Best identifies four common characteristics of all social theories:

1. An epistemology, or a body of knowledge about what we know and how we know it
2. An ontology, or the nature of reality
3. A historical location, indicating that all social theories are products of a specific period and reflect its realities
4. A set of prescriptions suggesting how society should behave or be organized.

Social theories address human beings as individuals and groups within society, examining societal interactions and structures. The differentiation between social and political theory lies in the focus of study. Political theory is concerned with the study of state action and limits, while social theory explores structures and processes beyond the state.

What is 'Political'?

• The central question of political theory has been "what is political?" The meaning, nature, and scope of political theory depend on defining or redefining the boundaries of the political. The debate over what constitutes the 'political' shapes the terms of reference for political reflection and the legitimate form and scope of politics as a practical activity.
• Prior to the 1970s, 'political' primarily focused on the nature and structure of government, treating it as separate from society and personal matters. Political theory involved the study of government nature, limits of state action, and excluded sources of power in society. However, the understanding of 'political' has evolved, making political theory more diverse and complex.
• In classical political philosophy, there was a consensus on the goals of the state or politics. However, contemporary political theory recognizes politics as a site of conflicting values and interests. Different schools of thought, such as Marxism, feminism, and critical race theory, emphasize the conflictual nature of the 'political' in various ways.
• Bhargava argues that 'political' has multiple meanings. One early meaning is decision-making within a political community, reflecting the ancient Greek concept of the polis. In this view, political theory examines how and with what justification decisions are made regarding the good life of a community.
• With modernity, differences within and between groups have become central to the political space. Political theory shifted to focus on power dynamics, such as "who wields power over whom and why." Political science became empirical inquiries into power exercise, while political theory reflected on processes and practices of exclusion from significant decision-making.
• The early phase of modern political theory emphasized the state as the primary focus. However, this narrow definition faced challenges, especially from feminist theories that dismantled the public-private dichotomy. The embeddedness of the state in society and power structures was highlighted by various theorists.

The postmodern perspective shifted the locus of power from the state to social institutions and norms. Political theory and social theory became intertwined, with power located in various sites beyond the state. Bhargava defines political theory as a form of systematic reflection with a wide range of objects of study, including collective decision-making, power mechanisms, and forms of power beyond the state.

Evolution of Political Theory

• Political theory is generally believed to have originated during the modern period, particularly as a product of modernity fostered by the Enlightenment in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. However, there are debates regarding its modern origins. Some scholars argue that political theory traces back to classical Greece, where the first reflective approach to the study of politics emerged. Jill Frank contends that ancient Greek philosophers transcended modern boundaries of 'political' by reflecting on ethics and virtue as well. Eric Nelson also refers to 'republican political theory' that developed in early modern Europe, drawing from Greek and Roman traditions. Contemporary scholars have even pointed to Islamic and Confucian political theories, challenging the eurocentrism in political theory.
• On the other hand, some scholars, like John Dunn, defend the relevance of Western political theory due to its continuous historical development and rigorous analysis. Many works on political theory note a 'decline' in the discipline, especially in normative political theory during the 1950s and 1960s. Peter Laslett proclaimed this decline as the 'death' of political theory, attributing it to the horrors of Nazism, the rise of empiricism, logical positivism, and behavioralism. The absence of significant works in political philosophy during this period was seen as a reason for the decline.
• David Held criticized positivism, particularly logical positivism, for displacing value judgments and normative political theory with empirical political science, exemplified by David Easton's 'systems approach.' This resistance to values and normativity led to Laslett's declaration of the 'death of political theory.' However, Bhikhu Parekh challenged this notion, arguing that the 1950s and 1960s witnessed significant works in political philosophy by figures like Michael Oakeshott, Hannah Arendt, Isaiah Berlin, and Karl Popper. The period also saw a reconstruction of Marxist political philosophy by thinkers such as Marcuse, Althusser, Sartre, and Habermas.

Parekh acknowledged that these decades were distinctive for three main reasons:

• Political philosophers of the time rarely engaged with each other's works.
• There was a recognition that political philosophy was under stress from various factors, including positivism, leading to a perception that it was either impossible or unnecessary.
• Political philosophers critiqued existing paradigms, influenced by their experiences of Nazism and Stalinism.

Examples include Popper's critique of historicism, Oakeshott's criticism of rationalism, and Berlin's denouncement of moral monism in favor of pluralistic ends. Parekh argued that political philosophy was deemed 'dead' not due to a lack of works but because it did not conform to established meanings of the discipline. Terence Ball also noted the decline in political theory during the same period, suggesting that the task of political theory was seen as merely clarifying concepts for political science.

In the 1970s, challenges to positivism took the form of alternative methodologies that emphasized history and context in understanding politics. Hermeneutics and post-positivist methodologies gradually replaced the scientism in social studies. Isaiah Berlin's 1962 essay, "Does Political Theory Really Exist?" highlighted the inefficacy of a science of politics, arguing that conflicting arguments and value judgments make political philosophy possible.

Political theory's revival is often traced to the 1970s, particularly with John Rawls' "A Theory of Justice" (1971), and the launch of journals such as "Interpretation" (1970), "Philosophy and Public Affairs" (1971), and "Political Theory" (1971). David Held identified this period as a time when political theory's critical role in social transformation was underscored. 
He perceived the renewal of political theory in several forms, including:

• History of political thought
• Conceptual analysis
• Systematic elaboration of political values
• Abstract theoretical questions
• Debates between foundationalists and antifoundationalists
• Systematic model-building
• Political theory's combination of philosophical analysis and empirical understanding

Contemporary political theory is characterized by a strong moral dimension while being more contemplative and reflective than prescriptive. It evaluates different conceptions of justice and analyzes political structures that subscribe to these concepts. The pluralism of ideas, issues, approaches, and methods has become a hallmark of political theory, which has confronted challenges from feminism, multiculturalism, environmentalism, critical race theory, and various claims of nationalism and cosmopolitanism.

Andrew Vincent highlighted the complex and contradictory nature of political theory in its modern and postmodern phases, with various conceptions of political theory embodying foundational elements such as classical normative, institutional, historical, empirical, and ideological political theory. Bhargava's differentiation of normative, explanatory, and contemplative political theories also emphasizes the multiple foundations and tasks of contemporary political theory.

Despite the expansion of issues in political theory, some view this diversity as a challenge to the discipline's survival. Terence Ball argued that the distancing of political theory from its subject matter, politics, posed a significant challenge. Political theory has evolved from its decline to a robust field that engages critically with competing values and interests, combining philosophical analysis and empirical understanding to address contemporary political issues.

Understanding Political Theory

Political theory is not just about abstract ideas; it plays a vital role in understanding the complexities of political life. It helps us reflect on fundamental questions about justice, power, rights, and the organization of society. By engaging with normative questions—what ought to be—theory enriches our understanding of political practices and institutions.

Functions of Political Theory

• Political theory provides explanations for complex social phenomena. It helps us understand why certain events happen or why specific social issues persist.
• For instance, the theory of the Protestant ethic and its link to the rise of capitalism, as proposed by Max Weber, serves as an explanatory framework for understanding historical economic developments.

Contemplative Function

• This function emphasizes the need to contemplate and reflect on societal issues that may not be entirely explained by empirical data alone.
• Gandhi’s critique of modern civilization in "Hind Swaraj" and Marx’s analysis of capitalism illustrate this contemplative approach, where theoretical reflection offers insights beyond empirical observations.

Normative Function

• Political theory engages with normative questions, evaluating values, principles, and the concept of the good life.
• It plays a crucial role in determining the relative significance of competing values and guiding societal choices.
• Bhargava argues that this normative aspect differentiates political theory from social sciences, emphasizing the importance of value judgments in political analysis.

Engagement with Normative and Empirical Aspects

• Political theory is not solely normative; it engages with empirical questions as well.
• Contemporary political theory often blends empirical analysis with normative considerations, reflecting on how political arrangements can promote justice, equality, and other societal goals.

Theoretical Perspectives

Diverse theoretical perspectives contribute to the richness of political theory.

Postmodernism

• Challenges grand narratives and emphasizes the importance of local and particular narratives.
• Encourages a critical examination of established theories and concepts.

Value Pluralism

• Advocates for the recognition and evaluation of competing values without imposing a singular normative framework.
• Figures like Isaiah Berlin and Hannah Arendt emphasize the significance of accommodating diverse values in political discourse.

Narcissistic Tendencies

• Critique of political theorists who treat theory as a specialized and detached activity, disconnected from the broader discipline of political science.
• Encourages a more integrated approach that acknowledges the interplay between theory and empirical political science.

Mutual Engagement

• Advocates for a mutual engagement between normative and empirical aspects of political analysis.
• Political theory should not isolate itself from empirical realities but engage with them to enhance understanding.

Integration of Empirical and Normative Dimensions

• Contemporary political theory recognizes the need to integrate empirical observations with normative considerations.
• This integration addresses complex political issues and contributes to the development of just and equitable political arrangements.

In conclusion, political theory has evolved from a narrow focus on the state to a broader engagement with social theory, empirical questions, and normative concerns. It plays a crucial role in interpreting and explaining social phenomena, guiding normative evaluations, and addressing complex political challenges. The interplay of various theoretical perspectives enriches the discourse, making political theory a dynamic and essential field within political science.