Theories of State: Liberal, Neo-Liberal, Marxist, Pluralist, Post colonial and Feminist | PSIR Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction - Theory of State

Political science is a branch of knowledge that explores the state and its various manifestations. However, the term "state" has often been used loosely to refer to different ideas and tendencies, such as a person's health or economic condition. In the context of political science, it has been used interchangeably with concepts like government or federation. Therefore, it is essential to clearly define the nature of the state, its role in promoting or restraining progress, the extent of its powers, and its differences from other institutions.
The study of the state has been a subject of interest for political philosophers since ancient times, particularly in Athens. The western world has made conscious efforts to develop principles of political theory related to the state. Thus, a thorough understanding of the state's concept is crucial for the study of political science.

The State and Its Derivations

The study of the state is a crucial aspect of political science, as it deals with the highest form of human associations. The ancient Greeks referred to this concept as "polis," which closely relates to the English term "Civitas" and carries the notion of public welfare. Meanwhile, the Teutons used the term "status," which only partly encompasses the modern understanding of the term.

The Prince (1513) by MacchiavelliIt was Niccolo Machiavelli who first introduced the term "state" in the context of political science during the 16th century. This term has its origins in the Teutonic word "status," and its usage in political discourse grew in popularity over time. As a result, the term "state" eventually acquired a neutral connotation, signifying authority.

Overall, understanding the historical roots and various meanings of the term "state" is an important aspect of studying political science, particularly in its evolution from ancient to modern times.

Meaning and Definition of The State

• The concept of the state is a crucial element in the study of political science, as it forms the basis for understanding various aspects of political authority and organization. Throughout human history, people have lived under different forms of authority, which have manifested in diverse ways. Despite these variations, there is a common underlying purpose to these authorities, and by examining their essential elements, we can understand the distinct nature of the state as compared to other organizations.
• In order to comprehend the meaning of the term 'state', it is important to consider various perspectives and definitions provided by different scholars. These definitions are influenced by the authors' viewpoints and are shaped by how they perceive the state. Sociologists may view the state as a social phenomenon, while jurists may consider it as a legal establishment. Scholars of international law may focus on specific aspects that political scientists might overlook, and philosophers may present abstract definitions of the state. However, it is essential to recognize that the state is both an abstract idea and a tangible organization, associated with physical elements.

With this in mind, the state can be understood in the following ways:

• An organization of individuals, wherein humanity is considered as a unified entity.
• A politically organized group of people residing in a specific territory.
• A legal organization that holds a monopoly over the use of force or violence against a particular population or group.
• An organization that, in domestic matters, operates through a unified set of institutions known as the government.

State of the States in the WorldBy considering the diverse definitions and perspectives on the state, candidates can develop a holistic understanding of this central political entity and its role in shaping social, legal, and political structures.

Elements of the State

The state can be understood as both a tangible entity and an abstract concept. When viewed concretely, it refers to a specific group of people or an association, while in abstract terms, it represents a corporation with a legal personality. Thus, a state consists of both physical and metaphysical or spiritual components. These elements are:

• Population: A state must have a group of people who form the basis of its existence.
• Territory: A state must have defined geographical boundaries within which its people reside permanently.
• Sovereignty: A state must have internal authority and be free from external control to exercise its powers.
• Government: A state must have a political organization through which the collective will of its people is expressed and implemented.

It is essential to note that the absence of any of these elements renders the state invalid, as all must coexist simultaneously. The state is not just the people, land, or government alone but encompasses all these elements, along with the unity that makes it a distinct and independent political entity.

These characteristics are common to all states, regardless of their historical contexts or specific forms. They apply to ancient Greek city-states, medieval kingdoms, modern monarchies, and all other types of states that exist today, such as liberal democracies, military dictatorships, and communist regimes. 

Distinction Between the State and Other Associations

The state is often confused with other institutions such as society, government, and nation, leading to a lack of clarity about its essential features. This article seeks to clarify the distinctions between the state and other associations.

Key Points:

• The Distinction Between State and Society: Society is broader than the state and encompasses all social institutions and relationships. The state is only one aspect of society and serves specific interests. The state is a highly organized institution with sovereignty, while society may be unorganized and does not possess sovereignty.
• The Distinction Between State and Government: Government is only an agency of the state through which the collective will is formulated, expressed, and executed. The state is in possession of stability, sovereignty, and extensiveness, whereas the government is a necessary but not sufficient condition for the existence of the state.
• The Sovereignty of the State: The state is distinguished from other associations of society by its sovereignty, which gives it the power to use force to maintain order and defend against external threats. In liberal democracies, the state's material apparatuses of sovereignty, such as the police, military, bureaucracy, and prisons, are strong.
• The Distinction Between State and Nation: The nation is based on psychological and cultural unity, while the state is based on physical and political unity. Nations emerged with the development of capitalism, whereas states existed before it. The essential elements of a state are not prerequisites for a nation.

In conclusion, understanding the distinctions between the state and other associations is essential for anyone interested in politics and public policy. While society, government, and nation may overlap with the state in certain respects, the state's sovereignty and organization make it unique among social institutions.

Is this Distinction Real?

• The distinction between the state and other social institutions is based on the legalist view of the state, which sees it as a law-making power. However, with the emergence of the welfare state, the difference between state and society has become almost negligible. Similarly, the distinction between state and government is only technical, and for all practical purposes, government is equivalent to the state. The differences between state and other associations have also been washed away by pluralists.
• The activities of the state must be seen in the context of the whole society. The state should be seen as the whole political system that operates in society to perform various functions, activities, and processes in the legal institutions with a population, definite territory, government, and sovereignty. The political system performs functions like maintaining stability and equilibrium, policy making, and serving the common welfare functions in society. The supreme power to make laws is an essential component of the political system.

Nature of the State: Different Theories

The concept of the state has been interpreted differently by different theorists based on their own fields of study. Each theorist has formulated their own theory regarding the origin, nature, scope, functions, and goals of the state. As a result, these theories vary in terms of their form and content. This unit aims to explore the diverse theories concerning the nature of the state.

The Liberal Theory

• Introduction to Liberal Theory: Liberalism emerged as a political philosophy in the 16th and 17th centuries as a reaction against the feudal system, the church, and the monarchy. It was a progressive movement advocating for individual rights, liberty, and the establishment of democratic government. The liberal theory is based on the idea that humans are free agents with their own will and interests, and the state is seen as a necessary institution to establish law, order, peace, and justice in society.
• Origin and Nature of the State in Liberal Theory: The liberal theory believes that the state is a necessity to serve the general interest of society as a whole. It is an institution that secures life and property and contributes to the moral and social development of individuals. Liberals make a distinction between the state and society, maintaining that the state exists to serve society, not the other way around.
• Evolution of Liberal Views on the Functions of the State: Liberalism's views on the functions of the state have changed over time, adapting to the changing needs of the capitalist class. The classical liberalism of the 18th and early 19th centuries advocated for a minimal state with limited functions, while modern liberalism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries supported a positive state with welfare functions.
• Classical Liberalism: The Minimal State: Classical liberalism, also known as the theory of laissez-faire or individualism, regarded the state as a necessary evil. This view was based on the belief that the state and individual freedom were opposites, and it sought to maximize individual liberty by limiting the state's functions. The primary role of the state in classical liberalism was to provide physical security for individuals, allowing them to develop their personalities without interference from the state.
• Modern Liberalism: The Welfare State: Modern liberalism, also known as the theory of the welfare state or reformist liberalism, sees the state as a positive force for social welfare, equilibrium, and meeting the socio-economic needs of the masses. This view was supported by various thinkers, such as Mill, Hobhouse, Keynes, and Laski. The welfare state was not just a response to electoral pressure, but also a result of increasing awareness among common people of their power through trade unions and public opinion.
• Neo-liberalism: A Return to Classical Principles: In the late 20th century, liberalism took a new turn in the form of neo-liberalism, which can be seen as a return to the ideas of classical political economy. Neo-liberals aim to reduce the state's role, believing that unregulated market capitalism will lead to efficiency, growth, and widespread prosperity. This view is found in the writings of economists like Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman, and philosophers like Robert Nozick.

In conclusion, the liberal theory has evolved over time to adapt to the changing needs of society and the capitalist class. From its origins as a minimal state focused on individual liberty, it has expanded to include welfare functions and social responsibility. However, the emergence of neo-liberalism suggests a return to classical principles, emphasizing the importance of free markets and limited government intervention.

The Marxist Theory

The Marxist theory of state emerged as an alternative and critique to the liberal theory of state, which viewed the state as a product of social contract, consent, and consensus. Marxism, on the other hand, asserts that the state is a product of class division and class struggle, serving only the interests of the dominant class. This theory is rooted in the belief that politics and the state are part of the superstructure based on the economic system or mode of production of a given society. In this article, we will explore the key aspects of the Marxist theory of state, focusing on its origin, nature, function, and legitimacy.

1. Origin of State: According to the Marxist theory, the origin of the state is closely linked to the division of society into classes and the beginning of class struggle. The state is not a power forced upon society, but rather a product of society at a certain stage of development, entangled in contradictions with it. As such, the state has originated with the birth of classes and class struggle, and serves as an instrument of exploitation in the hands of the dominant class.
2. Nature of State: Marxists argue that the state is an organized power of one class oppressing the other. In capitalist societies, the economically dominant minority class (capitalists) rules over the majority working class (workers) through political dominance. Marx never regarded the state as a higher morality ending conflicts in society and bringing unity and harmony. Instead, he viewed the state as an alienated and parasitical social force.
3. Function of State: As per the Marxist theory, the main function of the state is to maintain the interests of the dominant class. This is achieved by maintaining control over the economically poor classes through various means, such as legislation, law enforcement, and provision of welfare services. However, these services are designed to serve the interests of the dominant class, rather than the general welfare of the entire community.
4. Legitimacy of State: The legitimacy of the state, according to Marxists, is derived from its role in serving the interests of the dominant class. The state is not an impartial actor, nor does it represent the general interest of the whole community. Instead, it is a tool used by the dominant class to maintain its control over society.
5. Revolution and the Abolition of State: Marxism advocates for the overthrow of the capitalist system through violent revolution and the establishment of a socialist state and economy. This socialist state is considered a temporary phenomenon, which will ultimately abolish private property and classes, leading to the withering away of the state. In this sense, the Marxist theory of state does not glorify the state, but rather advocates for its eventual dissolution in a classless society.

The Gandhian Theory

The Gandhian Theory of the state is derived from Indian traditions of thinking about the state, as well as some influence from western thought. It has similarities and differences with both the Liberal and Marxist perspectives on the state. In this article, we will explain the key principles and characteristics of the Gandhian state, focusing on its minimal nature, the basis for its limitations, its connection to the economic and social systems, and its moral grounding.

1. The Minimal State: Gandhi acknowledges the necessity of the state, despite his advocacy for nonviolence. He recognizes that the state involves the use of coercion and violence, as humans may not always possess ideal qualities of nonviolence and sociability. However, Gandhi believes that the state should be limited in its power, advocating for a minimal state. This means that the state's primary functions would be limited to defense, foreign relations, and addressing issues that affect the entire territory under its jurisdiction.
2. Decentralization of Power: One of the key ways that Gandhi suggests limiting the state is through decentralization, wherein communities below the state level have greater autonomy and independence. The village community serves as the primary unit of this autonomy, making decisions through consensus on matters affecting the rural community. This system of decentralized power, referred to as a Swaraj Polity, is considered by Gandhi to be a genuinely Indian political system evolved over centuries.
3. Moral and Ethical Limitations: The Gandhian state is also limited by moral challenges that arise from individual conscience or the "inner voice." The power of the state is minimized by the ethical norms embedded in society through customs and traditions. This emphasis on moral grounds differentiates Gandhian rights from liberal individual rights, as the claim for rights is based on the duty to act morally.
4. Economic and Social Systems: The Gandhian state cannot be separated from its economic and social systems. The concept of Swaraj or self-government extends to economic and social arrangements within rural communities, emphasizing the importance of groups over individuals. This interconnectedness of the state, economy, and social systems makes the Gandhian state a distinctively Indian form of state.
5. Comparison with Liberal and Marxist States: While the Gandhian state shares some similarities with both Liberal and Marxist states, it also has distinct differences. The Liberal state is based on individual rights, whereas the Gandhian state focuses on moral and communitarian consensus. The Marxist state, like the Gandhian state, views the state as a system of violence but differs in its emphasis on class dominance and exploitation.

The Pluralist Theory

Pluralism is a significant counter-argument to the monistic theory of sovereignty, which grants the state supreme and unlimited power. Notable proponents of Pluralism include Harold Laski, J.N. Figgis, Ernest Barker, G.D.H. Cole, A.D. Lindsay, Duguit, MacIver, and others. According to Pluralists, sovereignty does not rest solely with the state, but rather exists within multiple institutions in society.

1. The Role of Other Institutions: Pluralists argue that there are numerous social, political, cultural, and economic institutions in society, many of which predate the state. For example, the family and church existed before the state. They believe that the state is not the supreme institution, but rather one of many institutions within society. Therefore, the state does not have the exclusive authority to exercise sovereignty as it pleases, as sovereignty is not its private property.
2. The Concept of a Pluralistic State: A pluralistic state is defined as a state in which no single source of authority exists. Pluralists assert that sovereignty is not indivisible and exclusive. Instead, it is fundamentally multiple and can be divided into different parts. The origins of the pluralism theory can be traced back to the Medieval Age, where individuals emphasized reducing the state's powers.
3. Individualism vs. Pluralism: The primary difference between individualism and pluralism lies in their focus. Individualists emphasize the rights and freedoms of individuals, while pluralists prioritize the rights and freedoms of associations and guilds. In the modern era, all states are interdependent, and the necessity to limit the sovereignty of the state is increasingly recognized.
4. Historical Perspectives on Pluralism: Famous German jurist Otto Von Gierke (1844-1921), English jurist F.W. Maitland, J.N. Figgis, and others argue that churches and guilds in the Medieval Age had internal freedom and shared sovereignty. They contend that if churches and guilds had autonomy in the past, modern associations should also possess freedom and autonomy.
5. Influences on Pluralism: Anarchism and guild socialism greatly emphasize limiting the state's sovereignty, thereby contributing to the development of pluralism. Key supporters of pluralism include Otto Von Gierke, F.W. Maitland, Figgis, G.D.H. Cole, A.D. Lindsay, Ernest Barker, Krabbe, Duguit, Laski, Cober, Zimmern, and Durkheim.

In summary, the pluralist theory is an important counterpoint to the monistic theory of sovereignty, positing that power and authority are not solely vested in the state, but rather dispersed among various institutions within society. Pluralism emphasizes the importance of autonomy and freedom among associations, guilds, and other social institutions, advocating for a more balanced distribution of power and authority in modern states.

The Feminist Theory

Feminist theory is an extension of the feminist movement that aims to achieve equality for both men and women in various aspects of life, including political, economic, and social spheres. This theoretical framework seeks to understand the nature of gender inequality by examining women's social roles, experiences, interests, and participation in feminist politics across diverse fields such as anthropology, sociology, communication, psychoanalysis, home economics, literature, education, and philosophy.

Three Basic Forms of Feminism

1. Liberal Feminism: Liberal feminism is rooted in classical liberal thought, which emphasizes individual freedom and the pursuit of personal interests. This approach views gender inequalities as stemming from the attitudes and practices of social and cultural institutions. While liberal feminists do not advocate for a complete reorganization of society, they do seek to expand the rights and opportunities available to women.
2. Socialist Feminism: Socialist feminism builds upon the ideas of Karl Marx and gained popularity during the women's movement of the 1960s and 1970s. This branch of feminism shares many goals with earlier feminist movements, including the abolition of gender roles. Socialist feminists see gender and sexuality as social constructs that can be transformed. They acknowledge that biology plays a role in shaping one's identity, but they believe that anatomy should not limit or restrict our abilities as human beings at the emotional or physical level.
3. Radical Feminism: Radical feminism focuses on achieving equality for women by eliminating male dominance in all social and economic contexts. This perspective calls for a radical reorganization of society, challenging existing social norms and institutions rather than relying solely on political processes. Radical feminists aim to abolish patriarchy by challenging traditional gender roles, opposing the sexual objectification of women, and raising awareness about issues such as rape and violence against women.

Feminist Political Theory

Feminist political theory encompasses a wide range of approaches and overlaps with related areas such as feminist jurisprudence, feminist legal theory, feminist political philosophy, female-centered empirical research in political science, and feminist research methods for use in political science and social sciences. Researchers argue that most versions of feminism involve exposing the presence of politics, or power relations, in our everyday lives, making feminist theory a form of political philosophy.

• A distinguishing factor of feminist political theory is its specific focus on the role of the state in perpetuating or addressing gender inequality. This involves examining how the state contributes to the reproduction of patriarchal structures and identifying potential strategies for dismantling these systems.
• Feminism is a purposeful movement that advocates for equality between men and women in political, economic, and social spheres. Feminist theory extends this movement by critically examining the ways in which gender inequality manifests in various aspects of life and proposing solutions for dismantling patriarchal systems. Through its various forms, including liberal, socialist, and radical feminism, this theoretical framework aims to empower women and ensure their equal participation in society's opportunities and resources. By challenging existing power structures and advocating for systemic change, feminists work towards a more equal and just society for all.

Post-colonial Theory

Postcolonial theory is a literary theory or critical approach that deals with literature produced in countries that were once, or are now, colonies of other countries. It may also deal with literature written in or by citizens of colonizing countries that takes colonies or their peoples as its subject matter. The theory is based on concepts of otherness and resistance. 

• Postcolonial theory became part of the critical toolbox in the 1970s, and many practitioners credit Edward Said’s book Orientalism as being the founding work. 
• Typically, the proponents of the theory examine how writers from colonized countries attempt to articulate and even celebrate their cultural identities and reclaim them from the colonizers. They also examine ways in which the literature of the colonial powers is used to justify colonialism through the perpetuation of images of the colonized as inferior. 
• However, attempts at coming up with a single definition of postcolonial theory have proved controversial, and some writers have strongly critiqued the whole concept.

Some Issues in Postcolonial Theory:
The post-colonial theory deals with the reading and writing of literature written in previously or currently colonized countries, or literature written in colonizing countries which deal with colonization or colonized peoples. It focuses particularly on the way in which literature by the colonizing culture distorts the experience and realities and inscribes the inferiority, of the colonized people on literature by colonized peoples which attempts to articulate their identity and reclaim their past in the face of that past's inevitable otherness. It can also deal with the way in which literature in colonizing countries appropriates the language, images, scenes, traditions, and so forth of colonized countries. This page addresses some of the complexities of the post-colonial situation, in terms of the writing and reading situation of the colonized people, and of the colonizing people. 

Conclusion

In conclusion, the study of the state is a fundamental aspect of political science, as it helps us understand the nature of political authority and organization. Throughout history, the state has played a significant role in shaping societies, and its role has evolved based on different perspectives and theories, including liberal, Marxist, Gandhian, pluralist, and feminist theories. Each of these theories approaches the state differently, focusing on various aspects such as individual rights, economic systems, decentralization, power distribution, and gender equality. By analyzing these diverse perspectives, we can develop a comprehensive understanding of the state's role in promoting or restraining progress, its powers, and its distinctions from other institutions in society. By doing so, we can better engage with political discourse and develop effective strategies for addressing the challenges that face modern states and societies.