Indian Nationalism - 1 - UPSC PDF Download

The Revolt of 1857

The Revolt of 1857 was a significant event in Indian history, as it marked the beginning of the Indian freedom struggle against the British East India Company. It was a full-blown rebellion of Indian soldiers against the British, although it was unsuccessful in overthrowing them. The event has been viewed from different perspectives, with some considering it as the first war of Indian independence, while others term it as a mere sepoy mutiny. In this article, we will analyze these perspectives in detail, keeping in mind the UPSC exam requirements.

1. The First War of Indian Independence: VD Savarkar's Perspective
VD Savarkar wrote a book in 1908 titled "Indian War of Independence" and was the first to call the 1857 revolt as the war for independence. His main arguments include:

• The annexation of Oudh and the case of greased cartridges were merely small excuses for the rebellion that was already brewing.
• The rupture of local traditions, mockery of Indian customs and religion, not recognizing the adopted rulers (a tradition allowed by Hindu Dharmashastras), and the promotion of Christianity were the main factors behind the rebellion.
• The unifying feature of the war was the desire for swadharma (self-religion) and swaraj (self-rule).
• The presence of secret organizations shows that the revolt had a plan and purpose, involving coded communication languages, infiltration of garrisons and villages, and the symbolic distribution of chapatis and red lotuses.
• The restoration of Bahadur Shah was not a retrograde action, but the consequence of nationalist re-awakening and a declaration of unity between Hindus and Muslims.
• Savarkar believed that though the attempt was defeated, the spirit of nationalism survived and would lead to another war for independence in the future.

2. The Sepoy Mutiny: British Historians' Perspective
Another discourse, led by British historians, termed the uprising as a mere sepoy mutiny. Their main arguments include:

• The rebellion was triggered by a few disgruntled soldiers and was just an act of indiscipline within the army.
• It was sporadic, unplanned, and occupied only parts of India.
• c) Beyond overthrowing the East India Company, the soldiers had no greater vision behind the revolt.
• There was no unity of purpose, as different groups had different goals: sepoys wanted to restore Mughal rule, the inhabitants of Oudh wanted their Nawab back, and peasants wanted tax reductions.
• There was no central leadership, and feudal leaders like the queen of Jhansi, Tantia Tope, and Kunwar Singh fought only to restore their former privileges.

India's freedom struggle was a long and complex battle, involving multiple strategies, periods, and actors. The Revolt of 1857 was an important turning point in this struggle, as it highlighted the simmering resentment against British rule in India. While VD Savarkar's perspective emphasizes the nationalist aspects of the revolt, the British historians' view downplays its significance as a mere sepoy mutiny. Regardless of these differences in interpretation, the Revolt of 1857 remains a crucial chapter in Indian history, paving the way for the eventual struggle for independence.

Constitutionalism (Moderate Phase)

1. Constitutionalism: A Moderate Political Strategy: Constitutionalism is a political strategy that is based on the philosophy of liberalism, which asserts that humans are rational beings and, therefore, political goals can be achieved through rational dialogue, without resorting to violence. This approach is characterized by the use of institutional methods, such as establishing various institutions like legislatures, local governments, and a free and fair judicial system to represent people's demands, involve them in administration, and address their grievances.
2. Constitutionalism in India: A Historical Perspective: The concept of constitutionalism is an imported idea in India, originating from Britain and introduced by the colonial rulers. The British established modern institutions in India, such as the rule of law, a modern judicial system, civil services, and assemblies. They sought to gain legitimacy for their rule by incorporating Indians into these institutions, thus building a sense of hegemony over the Indian population.
3. Early Indian Nationalists and Constitutional Methods: Early Indian nationalists employed constitutional methods to voice their demands and grievances. They used various tactics such as passing resolutions in assemblies, sending memorials, petitions, and appeals for justice, and organizing protests. These constitutional methods were different from direct actions like passive resistance, satyagraha, non-cooperation, dharna, hartal, boycotts, civil disobedience, rebellions, mutiny, terrorism, criminal actions, aiding foreign invasions, and subversion.

Significance of Constitutionalism in Indian Nationalism

• Non-Violent Approach: Constitutionalism provided a non-violent and peaceful means for Indian nationalists to express their demands and grievances, thus avoiding unnecessary bloodshed and social unrest.
• Building Consensus: By engaging in rational dialogue and debate, constitutionalism promoted a culture of consensus-building among different political groups, leading to a more united and coherent national movement.
• Legitimacy and Credibility: Employing constitutional methods helped Indian nationalists gain legitimacy and credibility in the eyes of both the colonial rulers and the Indian population, thus strengthening the nationalist movement.
• Foundation for Democratic Institutions: The use of constitutional methods by early Indian nationalists laid the groundwork for the development of democratic institutions in India post-independence.
• Training Ground for Indian Leadership: Participation in constitutional institutions, such as assemblies and civil services, provided Indian nationalists with valuable experience and training in governance and administration, which proved beneficial for the leaders of independent India.

Why early nationalists adopted constitutional methods?

• Ideological Reasons: The early nationalists were greatly influenced by western education and the values of liberalism. They believed that British rule was a blessing in disguise and had faith in the British sense of justice. Figures like M.G. Ranade, Surendranath Banerjee, and Dadabhai Nauroji praised the British for introducing the rule of law and inspiring hope and confidence in the Indian population. They believed that by appealing to the British in a reasonable manner, they could bring about institutions that were truly British in character, benefiting the Indian people.
• Pragmatic Reasons: The early nationalists, such as Gokhale and C.Y. Chintamani, realized that direct action required immense preparation, which was not feasible at the time due to internal divisions and disunity among the Indian population. They believed that constitutional methods were the best course of action given the circumstances.

Criticism of constitutional methods

• Tilak's Critique: Tilak argued that adopting constitutional methods in front of an alien bureaucracy was akin to political suicide. He believed that these methods would not be effective in achieving the desired outcomes.
• Aurobindo Ghosh's Critique: Aurobindo Ghosh believed that the adoption of constitutional methods showed the intellectual bankruptcy of the leaders. He advocated for striking at the roots of colonialism by boycotting foreign goods and adopting Swadeshi.
• Pandit Nehru's Critique: Pandit Nehru argued that constitutional methods would not work because India did not have a constitutional government. He believed that other methods were necessary to bring about change.
• Bipin Chandra's Assessment: Bipin Chandra argued that direct action was only possible when the masses were organized, unified, and had a common consciousness of the common end. Although the moderates did not carry out mass struggles, they did engage in struggles at the ideological level, laying the foundation for a spectacular mass movement. He quotes M.G. Ranade and Gokhale, who believed that their efforts, even if they resulted in failures, were ultimately serving the country and would eventually lead to success.

In conclusion, the early nationalists adopted constitutional methods due to their ideological beliefs in British justice and their pragmatic assessment of the situation at the time. While these methods were criticized by some, they played a crucial role in laying the foundation for future mass movements and struggles against colonial rule.

Extremist Phase in Indian Nationalism

The Extremist phase in Indian Nationalism was marked by the emergence of a new generation of leaders who were dissatisfied with the achievements of the early nationalists. This second generation, represented by Lal Bal Pal (Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal), is often referred to as extremists due to their more assertive demands and methods compared to the earlier moderates.

• Goals and Objectives of Extremists: Although the ultimate goal of both moderates and extremists was Swaraj (self-rule), the extremists were more impatient and demanding. Their idea of Swaraj was more akin to a dominion status, except for Aurobindo Ghosh, who advocated complete independence. They were frustrated with the slow pace of reforms introduced by the British, which they considered inadequate to meet the aspirations of the Indian people. 
• Differences in Strategy: The primary difference between moderates and extremists was in their approach towards achieving Swaraj. The extremists favored direct actions such as passive resistance, boycotts, Swadeshi (promoting Indian-made goods), national education, and establishing national courts. Tilak, for instance, rejected the moderate method of petitioning and declared that Swaraj was the birthright of Indians. He also justified the right of the people to resist an exploitative government.
• Impact of Extremist Phase: The Extremist phase can be seen as a logical progression from the earlier moderate phase, as it helped preserve the credibility of the Indian National Congress (INC) and laid the foundation for Gandhi's mass movement. The Swadeshi Movement, led by the extremists, can be considered a successful campaign, which boosted the nationalist spirit among Indians.
• Nationalism based on Cultural Symbols: The extremists promoted a stronger sense of nationalism by using cultural symbols. However, this approach allowed the British to portray the INC as a Hindu party and give a communal color to the movement. In order to counter the rising nationalist consciousness, the British introduced the Morley-Minto Reforms in 1909, which granted separate electorates to Muslims and laid the foundation for the two-nation theory.

Gandhian Phase: Strategy of Mass Movements

Introduction
Gandhian mass movements led by Mahatma Gandhi are one of the most significant mass movements in world history. These movements were planned, directed, and controlled, resulting in successful outcomes. 

Types of Mass Movements

1. Uncontrolled Mass Movements: These are spontaneous and uncontrolled movements, such as the French Revolution.
2. Controlled Mass Movements: These are planned, directed, and controlled movements, such as the Russian Revolution, Chinese Revolution, and Gandhian movements.

Strategies of Mass Movements

1. 1. Marxist-Leninist Movement: Characterized by sudden, comprehensive, and immediate overthrow of the system (overnight movements).
2. Gramscian and Gandhian Movements: These movements involve a two-stage revolution in case of 'opaque states' where the exploitative nature is difficult to understand. They consist of a protracted movement known as the war of position before arriving at a point of direct action or war of maneuver/frontal attack.

Gandhian Strategy: Struggle-Truce-Struggle (STS)

According to historian Bipin Chandra, the Gandhian mass movement was a long, protracted movement with active and passive phases. The active phases included mass agitation, while the passive phases comprised constructive programs. Gandhi's strategy was based on the understanding of mass psychology, as he was aware of the masses' limited capacity to participate. He knew when to start and when to call off a movement, making him a master strategist.

Gandhi's Proactive Approach: Gandhian movements were proactive rather than reactive. Gandhi never left the ball in the enemy's court and always took the initiative. The time, place, and issue were all chosen by Gandhi, making his approach offensive rather than defensive. This strategy forced the enemy to respond, giving the advantage to the Gandhian movement.

Non-Cooperation Movement: A Detailed Overview

The Non-Cooperation Movement was a significant phase in the Indian struggle for independence from British rule. It was the first pan-India movement led by Mahatma Gandhi, which aimed to resist British rule through non-violent means. The movement was initiated due to several factors, which created a conducive political environment for launching the movement.

Factors Leading to the Non-Cooperation Movement

1. Rowlatt Act and Suppression of Civil Liberties: The Rowlatt Act, passed in 1919, allowed the British government to imprison any person without trial, leading to widespread resentment among Indians.
2. Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy: The brutal massacre of unarmed civilians by British forces in Amritsar in 1919 deeply shocked the Indian population and fueled anti-British sentiment.
3. Hunter Commission Report and Support for General Dyer: The Hunter Commission, established to investigate the Jallianwala Bagh incident, largely exonerated General Dyer, the responsible officer. This decision, along with the support he received from the British public, further angered the Indian population.
4. Economic Distress due to World War I: The economic burden of World War I led to widespread unemployment and inflation in India, causing hardships for the common people.
5. Khilafat Movement: The Khilafat Movement, aimed at preserving the Ottoman Caliphate, provided an opportunity for Hindu-Muslim unity in India.

Strategy of the Non-Cooperation Movement

The Non-Cooperation Movement adopted several strategies, including:

• Surrender of Titles and Honors: Indians were encouraged to renounce any titles or honors given by the British government.
• Boycott of Government Institutions and Foreign Goods: Indians were urged to boycott government schools, colleges, and foreign clothes.
• No Tax Campaign: In case of approval by the provincial congress committee, a no-tax campaign was to be launched.
• Establishment of National Institutions: National schools, colleges, and panchayat courts were to be set up, along with promotion of Khadi, maintaining Hindu-Muslim unity, and giving up untouchability.
• Strict adherence to Non-Violence: Non-violence was the guiding principle of the movement.
• Grassroots Expansion of Congress: The Congress party aimed to reach the grassroots level by expanding its presence in local communities.

End of the Non-Cooperation Movement
The Non-Cooperation Movement was called off by Mahatma Gandhi in February 1922, following the Chauri Chaura incident, in which a violent mob of protestors set fire to a police station, killing several policemen. This decision was widely criticized, even by some Congress leaders, who felt that the movement could have achieved more if it had continued.

Assessment of the Non-Cooperation Movement

Despite failing to achieve its stated objectives and promises made by Gandhi and Congress, the Non-Cooperation Movement had several positive outcomes:

• Mass Mobilization: The movement successfully transformed the national movement into a mass movement, involving people from different social and economic backgrounds.
• Establishment of Congress as a Party of the Masses: The movement helped establish Congress as the party representing the interests of the masses rather than a 'microscopic minority.'
• Boycott Successes: The movement witnessed several successful boycotts, including the boycott of the visit of the Prince of Wales and the boycott of foreign goods.

Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-31)(CDM): A Significant Milestone in Indian Nationalism

The Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) is an important chapter in the history of Indian nationalism and the struggle for independence from British rule. It is a prime example of Gandhian strategy and holds significant importance compared to the Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM). The CDM was a more proactive and offensive approach, challenging the authority and legitimacy of the British colonial state. It led to the Gandhi-Irwin Pact in 1931, where the government accepted almost all of Gandhi's demands, elevating the credibility and standing of the Indian National Congress.

Comparison between CDM and NCM

1. Provocative Nature: While NCM targeted the economic base of colonialism, CDM was a direct challenge to the authority. It questioned the legitimacy of the state and willfully disobeyed its commands, making it more provocative than NCM.
2. Offensive Strategy: CDM was more offensive, as Gandhi wanted the British to use force. Using force would challenge the myth of 'benevolent despotism,' and if they did not, it would signify the collapse of the state. This put the colonial state in a dilemma, as they had to decide whether to arrest Gandhi or not, which ultimately led to more rigorous protests and the release of Gandhi, showcasing his victory.
3. Favorable Atmosphere: Gandhi initiated the CDM when he realized the atmosphere was favorable due to anti-British feelings resulting from economic hardships, the economic depression, the Simon Commission, and the death of Lala Lajpat Rai.

Gandhi's Demands:
Gandhi presented an 11-point list of demands, which included:

• Abolition of salt tax: The British monopoly on the production and sale of salt was challenged by Gandhi, who demanded its abolition.
• Total prohibition on sale of liquor: Gandhi called for a complete ban on the sale of alcohol, as it was detrimental to the society and economy.
• Reduction of land revenue by half: High land revenue imposed by the British was causing hardships to the farmers, and Gandhi demanded its reduction by 50%.
• Reduction of military expenditure by half: Gandhi demanded the reduction of military expenditure, which was a significant burden on the Indian economy.
• Reduction in the salary of higher officials: Gandhi called for a reduction in the exorbitant salaries of high-ranking British officials in India.
• Hike in the tariff of imported goods: Gandhi demanded an increase in the import duties on foreign goods to protect Indian industries.
• Release of political prisoners: Gandhi called for the release of all political prisoners languishing in British jails.
• Abolition of CID: Gandhi demanded the abolition of the Central Intelligence Department (CID), which was used to suppress the Indian freedom struggle.
• License to use arms in self-defense: Gandhi called for the right to bear arms in self-defense against oppressive British policies.
• Rationalization of rupee pound-sterling ratio: Gandhi demanded a fair exchange rate between the Indian rupee and the British pound sterling to promote economic stability.
• Coastal Tariff Regulation Bill: Gandhi demanded the withdrawal of the bill, which aimed to increase taxes on coastal shipping in India, thereby burdening local trade.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Indian freedom struggle was marked by various phases and strategies, including the moderate phase of constitutionalism, the extremist phase, and the Gandhian mass movements like the Non-Cooperation Movement and the Civil Disobedience Movement. Each phase contributed to the growth of nationalism and the eventual attainment of independence from British rule. Despite differences in approach and ideology, these movements collectively laid the foundation for a united and democratic India, with leaders like Mahatma Gandhi playing a pivotal role in shaping the nation's destiny.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) for Indian Nationalism

What were the main perspectives on the Revolt of 1857?

There are two main perspectives on the Revolt of 1857. VD Savarkar's perspective views it as the first war of Indian independence, highlighting the nationalist aspects of the revolt. On the other hand, British historians view it as a mere sepoy mutiny, downplaying its significance as a rebellion against British rule.

What is the significance of constitutionalism in Indian nationalism?

Constitutionalism played a crucial role in Indian nationalism by providing a non-violent and peaceful means for Indian nationalists to express their demands, promoting a culture of consensus-building among different political groups, legitimizing and strengthening the nationalist movement, laying the groundwork for the development of democratic institutions in India, and providing valuable experience and training in governance and administration for Indian leaders.

What were the main differences between the moderate and extremist phases of Indian nationalism?

The main differences between the moderate and extremist phases of Indian nationalism lie in their goals, objectives, and strategies. While both groups aimed for self-rule, the extremists were more impatient and demanding. The moderates focused on constitutional methods, while the extremists favored direct actions like passive resistance, boycotts, and establishing national institutions.

What was the Gandhian strategy for mass movements?

The Gandhian strategy for mass movements was based on the struggle-truce-struggle (STS) approach, which involved alternating between active phases of mass agitation and passive phases of constructive programs. This strategy was rooted in an understanding of mass psychology and the limited capacity of the masses to participate in prolonged agitation.

What were the main demands of Mahatma Gandhi during the Civil Disobedience Movement?

Gandhi's main demands during the Civil Disobedience Movement included the abolition of the salt tax, total prohibition on the sale of liquor, reduction of land revenue and military expenditure by half, reduction of salaries of higher officials, a hike in the tariff of imported goods, release of political prisoners, abolition of the CID, the right to bear arms in self-defense, rationalization of the rupee-pound sterling exchange rate, and the withdrawal of the Coastal Tariff Regulation Bill.