Power | PSIR Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

The concept of power has taken on a significant role in political theory due to the shift in the meaning of politics from being a study of state and government to that of a study of power. Power, in the context of international relations, refers to the ability of a state to influence or control the behavior of other states to promote its own vital interests. This capacity for power includes skills and techniques used to persuade, threaten, or coerce other states to gain dominance. The disparity in power capacity among states is evident, with some being considered "haves" and others as "have-nots," leading to an ongoing power struggle. However, defining power in a precise and clear way is challenging despite its ubiquitous presence in our lives. By refining our understanding of power and authority in social and political theory, we can better comprehend complex concepts within national and international politics.

Power: Meaning of The Concept

Understanding the Concept of Power
Power is a central concept in various aspects of life, including politics, society, and interpersonal relationships. It can be seen in different forms, such as a teacher scolding a student or a state making war against another. To understand the concept of power, we need to explore several perspectives presented by various political theorists, jurists, and philosophers.

1. Power in Political Theory: In political theory, power is the central issue, whether it is clothed in law that qualifies it or whether authority that renders obedience to it voluntarily sustains it. Realists see power as a force exercised by the state, while Jurists argue that it is qualified force—in other words, force exercised 'in the name of law'. According to this perspective, power is force expressed in terms of law, and it is force qualified and expressed in a regular and uniform manner.
2. Sovereignty and Power: The concept of sovereignty, as described by John Austin, is closely associated with power. Sovereignty distinguishes the state from other associations and implies that the final authority is the state. The important point here is that there is a sovereign power in the state which, whether held by the people or by the prince, is the source of law. Sovereign power converts the rule of force into a rule of law, as seen in the transition from the 'state of nature' to the 'civil state' in Hobbes' philosophy.
3. Authorization and Power: For Hobbes, authorization, not habitual obedience, is what makes the sovereign, which converts force into power. The sovereign representative is entrusted with the power to procure the safety of the people. Hence, it cannot violate the very reason for which it was entrusted with sovereign power.
4. Different Perspectives on Power: Various authors have presented different perspectives on the concept of power. For Friedrich, power is a "certain kind of human relationship," while for Tawney, it is "the capacity of an individual or a group to modify others' conduct as one desires." Mao Zedong saw power as flowing from the barrel of a gun, while Gandhi regarded it as the power of love and truth.
5. Types of Power: Power is ascribed to different things on different grounds. Some common types of power include economic power, military power, intellectual power, political/executive power, and social power. The common thread in all these power manifestations is the concept of "ability" or "capacity." In general, power can be defined as the sum total of external influences and pressures that can make an individual or a group of individuals move in a required direction.

Distinction Between Power and Related Themes

• The concept of power in political science can be complex and often intertwined with related themes such as control, influence, authority, force, domination, coercion, and others. To avoid confusion for students, it is crucial to differentiate power from these related themes.
• Power, as previously mentioned, is one's capacity to conquer or control others. This ability can be based on deceit, strategy, manipulation, or even legal and constitutional processes. The struggle for power is a central aspect of international politics.
• Force, in contrast to power, is the most extreme manifestation of power. Physical force involves methods such as restraint, coercion, threat, intimidation, blackmail, terrorism, and military domination. In this sense, power can be viewed as latent force, while force itself is the visible expression of power.
• On the other end of the spectrum is influence, which represents a more subtle form of power. Influence may stem from social prestige, intellectual and spiritual prominence, high morality, and other factors. Unlike power, which is coercive, influence is persuasive.
• Authority is another related concept, involving the moralization and legitimization of power through legal or traditional sanctions. It is essentially the institutional framework within which power is organized and made lawful. A detailed analysis of the concept of authority can be found later in this unit.
• Lastly, control is a theme linked to power but has its own distinct characteristics. Control is broader and less concentrated than power, encompassing various forms such as legislative, executive, judicial, financial, and others. In comparison to control, power is more intense.

Implications of Power

The concept of power has various implications that extend beyond political and economic contexts, as it is fundamentally a social phenomenon. By distinguishing power from related concepts such as influence, control, authority, prestige, and rights, we can gain a more nuanced understanding of power, which is particularly beneficial for those studying political science.

• Power can be considered a hidden force, while force represents the visible display of power, and authority symbolizes power that has been institutionalized. The expression of power can vary depending on the situation, whether it is within a formal organization, an informal group, or any organized or unorganized community.
• The foundation of power lies in a combination of factors, such as numbers (particularly majorities), social organization, and resources. By understanding these underlying elements, we can gain a deeper comprehension of the complex nature of power.

The Power Theory: An Overview

The Power Theory of sovereignty asserts that the state's rules, regulations, and laws have the ultimate authority. This implies that within the state, the rules made by other associations are subordinate to the state's authority. However, this theory has been criticized by political theorists who argue that the concept of political sovereignty should be defined in terms of power instead of legal authority. In this context, the sovereignty of the state should be considered as the supremacy of coercive power rather than legal authority.

• The Moral Perspective: From a moral standpoint, one may argue that the laws of the state do not possess ultimate authority. If an individual's conscience dictates that they should not obey a particular law, then morally, they are entitled to disobey. In most moral matters, the final authority is one's conscience, which may appeal to a higher law, such as the natural law. For instance, when Antigone disobeyed the Greek tyrant Creon's order not to bury her dead brother, she did so on the grounds that the higher law, the natural law, required the dead to be respected.
• The Role of Power and Force: The concept of power not only encompasses the ability to ensure one's will is carried out but also the ability to do so through the threat of force. Thus, it can be argued that the state's sovereignty, for the purpose of politics, should be defined as the supremacy of coercive power rather than legal authority. This is because the entity that is sovereign is the one that can substantiate its claim, and the state does so by possessing the power of armed force.

Historical and Philosophical Roots of the Power Theory

• The Power Theory was first eloquently expressed in Thomas Hobbes' 'Leviathan.' He argued that humans desire power and even greater power, leading to competition among individuals. However, people also want to live in peace to enjoy the power they possess, so they are inclined to live under a common power. After Hobbes, Hegel took the sovereign power of the state to an extreme by dismissing all international morality's ethics.
• In the twentieth century, Prof. H. J. Morganthau was one of the leading proponents of the Power Theory, stating that politics is simply a struggle for power. The theory gained practical manifestation when Italian dictator Benito Mussolini declared, "nothing against the state, nothing above it," giving rise to the ideology of Fascism.

The Broader Concept of Power: While the Power Theory often focuses on the political aspect of power, it is crucial to recognize that power encompasses much more. This includes the power of the soul, mind, and one's ideas. Historical figures like Buddha and Gandhi demonstrated the power of thought and ideology to the world.

Liberal Democratic Theory of Power

In liberal democratic theory, power is associated with the developmental and extractive capacities of individuals. This means that power refers to the ability to use and develop one's own human capacities. This concept of power has two aspects: developmental and extractive, corresponding to ethical and empirical dimensions. Developmental power refers to the qualitative aspect of an individual's ability to use and develop their capacities. On the other hand, extractive power involves using one's capacities to derive benefits from others. In this sense, liberal democratic theory connects political power with economic power, as money plays a significant role in governing elections, propaganda, persuasion, and control. This theory highlights the need for maximizing democracy to ensure that humanistic values are not compromised.

Marxian Theory of Power

• The Marxian theory of power links politics and economics through power dynamics. Karl Marx believed that political power is held by those who control the means of production, while the labor force has little or no control over these resources. This "relation of production" determines the distribution of political power.
• According to Marx and Engels, political power is simply the organized form of one class oppressing another. They argue that as capitalism advances, the state takes on more functions previously performed by the dominant class, leading to a close integration between political power and the prevailing socioeconomic system. This power structure is believed to be transient and will eventually disappear with the emergence of a stateless and classless society.

Michael Foucault's Perspective on Power

• Michael Foucault's analysis of power provides a deeper understanding of power as a flow, manifested in relations at multiple locations. He shifts the focus from the traditional sovereignty-centric conception of power to what he calls "disciplinary power" or the micro mechanisms of power – the techniques and tactics of domination that maintain social order.
• Foucault argues that the state is a superstructural meta power, rooted in a series of multiple and indefinite power relations. He emphasizes the need to move away from the juridical concept of power and focus on the socially networked relations of domination and subjugation.
• In Foucault's view, power is not merely a top-down force but is expressed through hundreds of micro-processes emanating from various sources. He believes that to understand the true nature of power, one must focus on the forms of subjection, localized systems, and strategic apparatuses, rather than just state institutions and political ideologies.

Sources of Power

Power comes from numerous sources, each of which has different effects on the targets of that power. Some originate from individual characteristics; others draw on aspects of an organization's structure. There are six types of power that include legitimate, referent, expert, reward, coercive, and informational.

• Legitimate Power  - It is also known as "positional power". This is the power individuals have from their role and status within an organization. Legitimate power usually involves formal authority delegated to the holder of the position.
• Referent Power- Referent power originates from the ability of individuals to attract others and build their faithfulness. It is based on the personality and interpersonal skills of the power holder. A person may be admired because of a specific personal mannerism, such as charisma or likability, and these positive feelings become the basis for interpersonal influence.
• Expert Power - Expert power draws from a person's ability and knowledge and is especially strong when an organization has a high need for them. Narrower than most sources of power, the power of an expert typically applies only in the specific area of the person's expertise and credibility.
• Reward Power- Reward power comes from the ability to bestow valued material rewards or create other positive incentives. It refers to the extent to which the individual can provide external motivation to others through benefits or gifts.
• Coercive Power - Coercive power is the menace and application of sanctions and other negative outcomes. These can include direct punishment or the withholding of desired resources or rewards. Coercive power relies on fear to induce compliance.
• Informational Power - Informational power derives from access to facts and knowledge that others find helpful or valuable. That access can signify relationships with other power holders and convey status that creates a positive impression. Informational power has numerous benefits in building credibility and rational persuasion. It may also serve as the basis for beneficial exchanges with others who seek that information.

What is Authority?

Understanding Authority in Political Realities
To comprehend political realities, it is crucial to be familiar with the three aspects of the state—force, power, and authority. The concept of the state is often associated with power, which is exercised following specific procedures and established rules. The state is a force employed in the name of the law. Force transforms into power when the element of arbitrariness is removed from its exercise by following particular methods laid down by the state's laws. The acknowledgment of power exercised as per definite rules implies the recognition of an obligation to submit to these rules. The term 'state' refers not only to an existing force in actual fact, but also to an authority that is acknowledged as warranted and justified in practice.

Classification of Authority

Max Weber, a German sociologist, proposed a threefold classification of authority sources in a modern state: rational-legal, traditional, and charismatic authority.

1. Rational-Legal Authority: Rational-legal authority is explicit and possesses the right to give orders and have them obeyed due to an office held within a system of deliberately framed rules that outline rights and duties. Bureaucracy is the prime example of rational-legal authority. When a citizen accepts the authority of a bureaucrat, they do so due to the powers allocated to the official by a legal system. The office, not the individual, is essential in this type of authority.
2. Traditional Authority: Traditional authority exists when a person, such as a king or tribal chief, holds a superior command position in accordance with long-standing tradition and is obeyed because everyone accepts the tradition's sanctity. Religious authority often falls under this category.
3. Charismatic Authority: Charismatic authority is based on the possession of exceptional personal qualities that cause a person to be accepted as a leader. These qualities can be saintly virtue, which provides religious authority, or outstanding heroism, intellect, oratory that brings a following of loyal devotion in politics, wars, and other enterprises. Charismatic leaders, such as Lenin or Mahatma Gandhi, have the gift of divine grace and extraordinary qualities.

Stability and Institutionalization of Authority

• In rational-legal and traditional authority, the agent and the source of authority are different, allowing for the source to be criticized without criticizing the agent. Hence, the agent enjoys a relatively stable position. However, in charismatic authority, the source and the agent of authority are the same, making the agent more vulnerable to criticism and instability.
• Charismatic authority tends to become institutionalized, a process Weber calls the 'routinization of charisma.' It is essential to note that none of these categories exist in a pure form. For instance, the British system combines traditional and rational-legal sources of authority, while India, according to Weber, is a blend of rational-legal and charismatic authority.

Distinction Between Power and Authority: Concepts and Meanings

The terms "power" and "authority" are often used interchangeably, but it is important to understand the differences between them for a clearer understanding of political concepts. Power refers to the ability or capacity to make others do what one wants, while authority is the right or entitlement to issue commands and have them obeyed. Both are related entities, with the exercise of power often depending on the recognition of authority.

Different Meanings of Power

• General meaning of power: In its most general sense, power refers to the ability or capacity to perform an action or achieve a particular outcome. This broad meaning can be applied to various contexts, such as the power of a machine, political power, or personal willpower.
• Social context of power: In a social context, power is understood as the specific ability to make other people do what one wants them to do. This can be achieved through holding a special office or position, or by exerting influence or pressure on others.
• Coercive power: Coercive power is a particular form of power that involves the use of threats or force to make others comply with one's demands. This type of power is often prominent in political conflicts and is closely associated with enforcement.

Implications of Authority

• Authority as the right to act: Authority is the right or entitlement to perform a particular action, such as the right of a worker to strike or the right of an employer to lock out employees. In this sense, a right can be understood as a freedom or permission to do something.
• Authority as the right of recipience: Authority can also be understood as the right to receive obedience or compliance from others. For example, if a minister is authorized by a statute to make regulations, this not only allows them to do so but also imposes an obligation on citizens to conform to those regulations.
• Authority as a specific form of power: Authority can be seen as a specific kind of ability or power that enables one to make others do what they want. This is achieved through the recognition and acknowledgment of one's authority, which can be derived from holding a particular office or position. In this way, authority is a distinct form of power, alongside coercive power.

Conclusion

In conclusion, understanding the concepts of power and authority is crucial for grasping the complexities of political and social dynamics. Power, as a central theme in political theory, manifests in various forms and is closely related to concepts such as force, influence, and control. Authority, on the other hand, is the legitimization and moralization of power through legal or traditional sanctions. By distinguishing between different types of power and authority, as well as their implications and sources, we can gain a deeper comprehension of the intricate nature of power relations and the role they play in shaping social and political realities. Consequently, this understanding is essential for anyone studying or engaging in the realm of politics and international relations.