Socrates and Plato | PSIR Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

A tradition is a widely shared set of ideas, beliefs, and practices that are passed down through generations and believed to have continuity over time. It represents what is accepted and common in relation to ideology, which involves partisanship and advocacy.

• An ideology can become a tradition through wider acceptance, while a tradition can be transformed into an ideology by emphasizing certain elements and disregarding others. The liberal and Marxist political traditions are often seen as opposing forces, yet they share concerns and issues that align them more closely with each other than with other political traditions. Despite the significant differences between mainstream expressions of these traditions, there are philosophical, epistemological, and substantial overlaps that justify considering them together.
• While the Liberal and Marxist traditions share a continuum, they also exhibit major cleavages and differences that vary across specific tendencies, allowing each to be regarded as an independent tradition. Defining the boundaries of these traditions is challenging, although there is general agreement on their respective cores. As traditions rather than mere theories, the Liberal and Marxist traditions encompass critically reflected views on a range of issues, the habits and dispositions of their adherents, the worldviews they support, and the ways of life they promote. These traditions are intertwined with common sense and shape many of our unreflected choices, often influencing our decisions before we engage in deliberate thought.

Socrates’ Political Ideas

Life of Socrates

• Socrates was born in 470 BC in ancient Greece. He initially worked as a stonemason and served in the military before becoming a teacher.
• His fame grew when the Oracle of Delphi declared him the wisest man.
• Socrates interpreted this as a challenge to find someone wiser.
• Through his inquiries, he discovered that while others were knowledgeable in their fields, they wrongly assumed they knew everything. In contrast, Socrates recognized his own ignorance, making him wiser.
• He concluded that the Oracle was correct.

Ancient Greek Thought

• In ancient Greece, people were more loyal to their city-state than to the broader region of Greece.
• Society was agrarian and relied on slavery.
• The Greeks did not believe in natural equality, as modern societies do, and lived in a patriarchal society.
• City-states often fought each other, with the Peloponnesian War being a notable conflict.
• In this war, Sparta defeated Athens, which influenced Plato’s interest in philosophy.
• Thucydides wrote about this war in The History of Peloponnesian War, considered one of the first works on Realism.

Socrates’ Theory of Knowledge

• Before Socrates, scholars focused on the physical aspects of life
• Socrates believed it was more important to understand what constitutes a ‘good life’ or a ‘virtuous life’.
• He argued that the goal of life is to lead a ‘good life’, which requires knowledge of what a good life entails.
• Socrates believed that the ultimate source of knowledge is within ourselves, and our soul serves as the guide for our actions.
• To discern the voice of the soul, Socrates introduced the method of dialectics.

What is Dialectics?

• Dialectics, a method of logical reasoning invented by Socrates, involves engaging individuals in debate to help them recognize the limitations of their arguments and correct themselves logically.
• Socrates categorized knowledge into two types:
• Type I: This type gives the illusion of knowledge and is shaky. Socrates argued that this should be termed opinions or beliefs, not knowledge.
• Type II: This is conceptual knowledge, unshakable and a product of dialectics. Dialectics filters opinions to achieve true knowledge.

Socrates as Father of Ethics and Philosophy

• Socrates is considered the father of ethics, a branch of philosophy that helps us understand how to live in society.
• He is also regarded as the father of philosophy because he emphasized the importance of understanding ideas and concepts.

Plato’s Political Thought

Plato’s Life

• Plato was born in Athens around 428 BC and grew up during the Peloponnesian War (430 BC - 401 BC). He was a student of Socrates and later became the teacher of Aristotle. Plato wrote on various subjects such as politics,aesthetics,cosmology, and epistemology.
• After Socrates’ death in 399 BC, Plato traveled across Europe and Egypt for over a decade, studying different subjects. Upon his return, he established The Academy around 387 BC, where he wrote significant works like The Republic,The Symposium, and The Laws.
• Plato is often regarded as the father of political science due to his influential ideas, including the theory of forms,theory of justice, and the concept of the philosopher king, which are still studied today.
• While Socrates is known as the father of philosophy for his exploration of ethics and the concept of the 'good life,' Plato earned the title of the 'father of political philosophy' for being the first to define what constitutes an ideal state and a good political life.
• Plato's most significant contribution is the Theory of the Philosopher King, which argues that an ideal state is one where philosophers are the rulers. He famously stated, “Until philosophers are rulers or rulers learn philosophy, there is no end to the predicament of human life.”

Source of Influence on Plato

• Socrates: Plato was influenced by Socrates’ view that “Knowledge is Virtue,” implying that ignorance is vice. He believed that for Athens to become a virtuous state, it must be governed by knowledge.
• Pythagoras: Plato was influenced by Pythagoras’ idea that the entire universe is based on mathematical principles and the theory of souls. The concept of the soul is believed to have Indian origins, and it is thought that Pythagoras acquired this idea from India.
• Heraclitus: Plato was influenced by Heraclitus’ belief that “Change is the characteristic of this world.”
• Parmenides: Parmenides taught that along with change, continuity or permanence is also a fundamental characteristic of the world.

Theory of Ideas

• Plato aimed to establish an ideal state and believed that to create such a state, one must first have a clear idea of what the ideal state looks like.
• Since ideas cannot be seen and can only be understood through reason, Plato argued that only those who possess reason, such as the Philosopher King, can create the ideal state.
• What is an Idea?
• Scholars categorize reality into two types: 1. Matter 2. Idea. Matter is physical and can be perceived through sensory organs like the eyes and ears, for example, money. In contrast, ideas cannot be understood through the senses; they can only be grasped through reason, like the concept of honesty.
• Matter belongs to the world of change, while ideas belong to the world of permanence. Ideas are the perfect manifestations because they belong to the realm of the divine. Matter, on the other hand, belongs to this imperfect world. Plato’s theory of ideas is rooted in Socrates’ theory of knowledge.

Plato's Theory of Justice

• Justice holds a central place in political philosophy. According to John Rawls, “Justice is the first virtue of social systems, just as truth is the first virtue of any system of thought.” Justice is seen as a prerequisite for harmonious coexistence.
• Plato does not confine the concept of justice to a narrow legalistic interpretation; instead, he broadens it to encompass the idea of right conduct. There is a resemblance between Plato’s understanding of justice and the Indian concept of Dharma.
• Dharma, in Indian thought, signifies right conduct. Ancient Indian texts outline the Dharma of each Varna (class) and also elaborate on Rajya Dharma (the duty of the state). Similarly, Plato’s theory of justice emphasizes the duties of different classes within the state.
• Methodology Used by Plato
• In formulating his theory of justice, Plato employs the method of dialectics. He engages various characters in dialogue to extract the essence of justice.
• His most renowned work,REPUBLIC, presents the theory of the ideal state and the constitution of the ideal state. The subtitle of the Republic is “Concerning Justice.” Plato asserts that justice cannot involve the idea of harming anyone.
• The concept of justice is linked to the satisfaction of the soul; our soul is never at peace when we harm someone. However, determining who is our enemy and who is our friend can be challenging. There is a risk of mistakenly harming a true friend.
• In the Republic, Plato engages in a dialogue among various characters. Thrasymachus represents the sophist viewpoint, while Glaucon embodies the contractual or pragmatic theory.

Sophists' Argument on Justice

• Sophists, representing the opposing tradition to Socrates, argue that “Man precedes Society.” They believe that society is a construct created by humans for their convenience and that it is natural for individuals to prioritize their self-interest over societal interests.
• According to the sophists, the means to a good life is Power. Justice is viewed as the interest of the strong, encapsulated in the idea of “Might is Right.” The ruling class establishes rules that serve their own interests. In many instances, it may be more beneficial for individuals not to follow certain rules, as this would better serve their personal interests.
• Thrasymachus, a sophist character in the Republic, introduces the early concept of “Civil Disobedience.” He argues that individuals should follow laws as long as they serve their interests, but there is nothing wrong with disobeying laws that go against their interests. Thus, Thrasymachus conveys two main ideas: power is a means to a good life, and it is not necessary to obey all rules.

Plato's Response

• Plato struggles to provide a robust counterargument to Thrasymachus’ views because Thrasymachus describes “What is” rather than “What ought to be.” However, Plato offers the following arguments:
• “Ought” should not be derived from “is.” While it is true that in nature “might is right,” it does not imply that this should be the guiding principle.
• If society were to adhere to “Might is Right,” there would be no peace or harmony. It is essential to recognize that humans are not self-sufficient and that it is natural for them to live in society.
• “Is” should not dictate “Ought.” Although some individuals commit murders, it would be unreasonable to conclude that “We ought to commit murders.” This reasoning does not make sense.
• The values governing social life should be based on reason, and reason indicates that “Might is Right” cannot serve as the foundation of social life.
• The soul of an individual who disobeys the law can never achieve the same level of peace as the soul of someone who follows the law.
• Power alone cannot ensure a good life; reason holds greater significance.
• In this way, Plato establishes the foundation of ethics and illustrates the difference between living in nature and living in society. In nature, individuals are guided by their instincts, passions, or appetites, whereas in society, they should be guided by reason. While it is true that humans are animals, it is equally true that they are social animals, distinct from other animals.

Plato's Scheme of Education

• Plato presents a comprehensive scheme of education that emphasizes the development of all aspects of personality, including mental,physical, and spiritual components. He advocates for both theoretical and practical education.

1st Stage: Primary Education (0 to 6 years)

• Emphasis on gymnastics for physical development,music for mental development, and moral stories for character building.
• 2nd Stage: Secondary Education (6 to 20 years)
• Focus on all general subjects, including history,geography,physical education, and military education. At the age of 20, there is a first filtration where students are assessed for their capacity to study further. Those who pass will be promoted, while the rest will join the producer class.

Higher Education

• 1st Stage (20 to 30 years): Subjects become more advanced, with a focus on mathematics,geometry, and literature.
• 2nd Filtration: Those showing aptitude for further learning will be promoted, while the rest will join the soldier class.
• 2nd Stage (30 to 35 years): Focus on dialectics.
• 3rd Stage (35 to 50 years): Involves fifteen years of practical training. By the age of 50, an individual becomes eligible to become a ruler. This process is expected to produce many philosophers, who will be equipped to govern effectively.