Contemporary Global Concerns | PSIR Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Human Rights    

I. Origin: International Bill of Rights
Human rights originated from the International Bill of Rights, which consists of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights.

II. Generations of Human Rights

• First Generation: Civil Rights - These rights focus on individual liberties and political freedoms, such as the right to life, freedom of speech, and the right to vote.
• Second Generation: Social-economic Rights - These rights emphasize social welfare, such as the right to education, healthcare, and decent working conditions.
• Third Generation:Solidarity Rights - These rights are collective in nature and pertain to the rights of groups, such as the right to self-determination, cultural identity, and environmental preservation.

III. Weakness of Human Rights Mechanism
The human rights mechanism is weak because countries are not genuinely interested in human rights as such. Instead, they use it as a means to achieve their geopolitical aims. The approach taken by these countries is not neutral.

IV. Human Rights Machinery: United Nations Human Rights Council (UN HRC)
The UN HRC was formed to address human rights issues globally. Its members are elected by the UN General Assembly, and it deals with various human rights concerns, such as civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights.

V. International Criminal Court (ICC)
The ICC was established in 2002 as an independent judicial institution that prosecutes individuals for the most serious crimes, such as genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. However, it has been criticized for the following reasons:

• Lack of major powers: None of the major powers, such as the United States, Russia, and China, have joined the ICC.
• Absence of enforcement mechanism: The ICC lacks any enforcement mechanism, making it difficult to hold individuals accountable for their crimes.
• Non-cooperation from states: States often refuse to cooperate with the ICC, hindering its ability to prosecute criminals effectively.
• Accusations of racism and fraud: The ICC has been accused of primarily targeting African countries, leading to claims of racism and a fraudulent investigation process.

VI. India's Objections to Joining the ICC
India has not joined the ICC due to the following reasons:

• Exclusion of nuclear weapons and terrorism: The ICC does not consider the use of nuclear weapons and terrorism as crimes against humanity, as proposed by India.
• Subordination to the United Nations Security Council (UNSC): The ICC is subordinate to the UNSC, which can refer matters, bind non-state parties, and block ICC proceedings. India believes that permanent members can misuse this platform.
• Dilution of sovereignty: The ICC prosecutor can initiate investigations independently, raising questions about the neutrality of the process and potentially diluting a country's sovereignty.

Environment    

In recent years, the environment has become a major issue in international politics, as we have shifted towards an energy climate era. The politics of the environment began with environmental movements started by civil societies in advanced countries, eventually leading to the emergence of deep ecology and shallow ecology.

• The Stockholm Conference of 1972 marked the beginning of the development of fundamental principles for environmental politics. These principles include the idea that the environment is a collective responsibility, with differentiated responsibilities for developed and developing countries. Developing countries prioritized development, as it was believed that poverty is the biggest pollutant. It was agreed that developed countries would support developing countries in their development efforts by transferring funds and technology.
• The Brundtland Commission of 1983 suggested that developing countries should pursue sustainable development, an idea published in the report titled 'Our Common Future'. The Rio Summit of 1992 determined the strategies for sustainable development, emphasizing community participation and involvement of all stakeholders. The summit also led to the emergence of the Rio principles, which included the precautionary principle and the polluters pay principle.
• The most politicized issue in environmental politics is climate change. The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) sets the objective of ensuring that global warming remains well below 2 degrees Celsius and, if possible, 1.5 degrees Celsius compared to pre-industrial levels. The principle of the UNFCCC is based on Common but Differentiated Responsibility and Historical Responsibility (CBDR, HR). This divides countries into two groups: Annexed (developed) countries, which have to reduce their emissions, and non-annexed (developing) countries, which can increase their emissions to achieve development.
• The Kyoto Protocol of 1997 aimed to create a binding agreement for developed countries to reduce their emissions by 5.2% below 1990 levels. However, the United States did not join the agreement as it was binding. Since then, climate change negotiations have focused on finding a successor agreement for the Kyoto Protocol and bringing the United States under commitments.
• The Copenhagen Summit of 2009 marked a turning point in climate change negotiations, as developing countries started losing their solidarity and the United States began dominating the negotiations. The Cancun Summit of 2010 saw the dilution of Common but Differentiated Responsibility, with all countries taking mitigation actions based on voluntary contributions.
• The Paris Climate Agreement of 2015 aims to limit global temperature increases to 2 degrees Celsius and provides $100 billion to developing countries. However, the Katowice Summit of 2018 saw disagreements between various groups on transparency in funding and reporting. The final text of the summit suggests a higher goal for funding but is riddled with loopholes that allow developed countries to avoid responsibility.

India's approach to climate change negotiations has been offensive, emphasizing the principle of equity and the CBDR and HR principles. However, it is crucial for India to maintain its stance on these principles while also adapting to the changing dynamics of international climate politics.

Gender Justice and Feminism in International Politics

Feminism is a critical perspective that advocates for the recognition and protection of individual rights, particularly women's rights, in global politics. Feminists argue that international politics is often seen solely from an inter-state perspective, which neglects the impact of decisions on individuals, especially women. They emphasize the need for a shift in focus from state security to individual security, and question the gendered nature of security practices. This essay will discuss the feminist perspective on global issues, gendering security, and important terms related to feminist theories.

1. Feminist Perspective on Global Issues
Feminists contend that women are underrepresented in international politics, despite the fact that decisions made at this level have significant consequences for them. For instance, civilian casualties constitute 90% of today's wars, with women and children being the majority of those affected. Feminists call for greater representation of women in international politics to ensure that their rights and interests are adequately considered and protected.

2. Gendering Security

• Historically, security has been perceived in gendered terms, with women seen as "those who need protection" and men as "those who can offer protection." Feminists argue that this perception should be challenged in contemporary times, as it perpetuates harmful stereotypes and neglects the actual security needs of individuals. For example, the fact that 90% of casualties in today's wars are civilians, primarily women and children, highlights the need for a more inclusive approach to security.
• Furthermore, feminists criticize the practice of sacrificing individual security, particularly women's security, for the protection of the state. This is exemplified by the establishment of prostitution camps surrounding military bases. They propose a shift in focus from state security to individual security, starting with the needs and rights of the most vulnerable.
• Additionally, feminists point out the gendering of certain practices, such as the perception of conciliatory gestures as feminine and weak, while war is seen as masculine and strong. This further reinforces harmful gender stereotypes and norms in the realm of international politics.

3. Important Feminist Terms and Theories

• Liberal Feminism: This theory posits that ensuring legal rights for women is sufficient for achieving gender equality.
• Post-Colonial Feminism: This perspective emphasizes the differences in the situations of women in developing and developed countries, and calls for different approaches in addressing their issues.
• Feminist Critical Theory: This approach critiques the patriarchal structures and norms in society and aims to challenge and transform them.
• Feminist Social Constructivism: This theory emphasizes the role of social constructs in shaping gender roles and norms.
• Feminist Postmodernism: This perspective critiques the universal, essentialist notions of gender and calls for a more diverse and fluid understanding of gender identities.
• Double Burden: This term refers to the dual responsibilities of women who work outside the home, as they often have to manage both household and professional life duties.
• Gender vs. Sex: While sex is biological, gender is a social construct, shaped by societal norms and expectations.

The feminist perspective on international politics calls for a shift in focus from state security to individual security, with particular emphasis on the rights and needs of women. By challenging the gendered nature of security practices and advocating for greater representation of women in international politics, feminists aim to promote gender justice and create a more inclusive and equitable world.

Terrorism as a Core Global Concern

The issue of terrorism became a core global concern primarily due to the following reasons:

• Globalization: Globalization has increased the role of non-state actors, such as multinational corporations (MNCs), social movements, and NGOs. This has had an impact on the spread of terrorism.
• US Declaration of Global War on Terrorism (GWOT): The United States has played a significant role in making terrorism a global concern by initiating the Global War on Terrorism.
• Copenhagen School of Thought: According to this school of thought, nations securitize issues, and the USA has securitized terrorism.

Is there a global terrorism?

The threat of global terrorism is not as extensive as it is often portrayed. While Al-Qaeda and ISIS have contributed to the rise of global terrorism, the issue remains confined to specific countries and regions. The number of casualties caused by terrorism is relatively small compared to those in regular warfare.

Defining Terrorism
Terrorism can be defined as a political strategy used to achieve specific political ends. It has a long history, dating back to the French Revolution when the term was first associated with the "Reign of Terror." Over time, terrorism has been linked to various causes and groups, such as communist insurrections, nationalist movements, and religious extremism.

Types of Terrorism

• Insurrectionary terrorism: Aimed at overthrowing the state (e.g., left-wing terrorism).
• Nationalist terrorism: Aimed at ending foreign occupation (e.g., Palestinian Liberation Organization).
• Global terrorism: Aimed at weakening US hegemony or changing global civilizational values (e.g., ISIS, Al Qaeda).
• New terrorism: Characterized by religious motivations and ideologies (e.g., Islamic extremism).

Comparing Old and New Terrorism

• Old terrorism was selective and pragmatic, while new terrorism is seen as a sacred duty.
• Old terrorism sought limited changes or accommodations, while new terrorism aims for total societal transformation.
• Old terrorism was institutionalized, with clear command structures, while new terrorism is more diffuse, leaderless, and amorphous.

Strategies to Counter Terrorism

• Strengthen state security and military repression: This approach can reduce terrorism to manageable levels but may not eliminate it completely.
• Address root causes and engage in political bargaining: This approach aims to address underlying issues that give rise to terrorism, such as poverty and political grievances.
• Uphold human rights and the rule of law: A balanced approach that respects civil liberties while combating terrorism is essential to maintain moral high ground and prevent the alienation of populations.

India's Proposed Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism (CCIT)

• India proposed the CCIT in 1996, which includes provisions for a universal definition of terrorism, a ban on all terrorist groups, mandatory extradition of terrorists involved in cross-border terrorism, and prosecution of terrorists under special anti-terror laws.
• However, the CCIT has not been accepted by various countries due to concerns about human rights violations, national liberation movements, and acts committed by armed forces.
• The future of human civilization is uncertain due to the threat of catastrophic terrorism and the potential for non-state actors to acquire weapons of mass destruction. However, global solidarity and cooperation can help to combat terrorism and prevent its further spread. Adopting a comprehensive approach that addresses root causes, upholds human rights, and fosters international cooperation is essential to prevail over terrorism and safeguard humanity.

Nuclear Question & International Politics

Oppenheimer, the father of the nuclear bomb, cited a verse from the Gita when he witnessed the nuclear explosion. The destructive power of nuclear weapons raises concerns about their use and possession. Although legally binding instruments exist for the use of chemical and biological weapons, no such agreement exists for nuclear weapons. Recently, a treaty prohibiting the use of nuclear weapons came into existence on 7th July 2017. However, none of the nuclear weapon states participated or accepted, making the treaty more of an aspirational document.

Nuclear Puzzle: Why Nations Acquire Nuclear Weapons

• Deterrence: Nations acquire nuclear weapons to deter potential aggressors.
• Power Status: Nuclear weapons can be used in war to assert a nation's power status.
• Bargaining Tool: Nations use nuclear weapons as a bargaining tool in international negotiations.
• Diplomatic Edge: Possessing nuclear weapons gives a nation a diplomatic edge over others.
• Prestige: Nuclear weapons are seen as a symbol of prestige for a nation.

Why Nations Relinquish Nuclear Weapons

• Realist perspective: Realists argue that security is the prime goal and nations relinquish nuclear weapons only when they get extended deterrence. For example, India did not acquire nuclear weapons until it had the security umbrella of the USSR.
• Liberals: Liberals highlight the role of international institutions, treaties, and regimes in preventing nuclear proliferation. The NPT is considered the greatest achievement of the international community in this regard.
• Social Constructivists: Social constructivists emphasize the role of norms, taboos, and world public opinion in preventing the use and proliferation of nuclear weapons. Nina Tannenwald's work on the "nuclear taboo" argues that the world's negative view of nuclear weapons has prevented their use.

Debate between Kenneth Waltz and Scott D Sagan: Are Nuclear Weapons Desirable or Undesirable?

• Realist thinkers like Kenneth Waltz argue that nuclear weapons have prevented a third world war and that gradual proliferation is conducive to international peace. Mearsheimer supports selective proliferation, arguing that mature democracies can possess nuclear weapons without posing a threat.
• Scott D Sagan argues that military organizations with nuclear weapons may be tempted to use them to win wars, especially in countries with weak civilian governments. He also points out that deterrence is not a guarantee, and there is a significant probability of the failure of nuclear deterrence leading to a nuclear war.
• The debate on nuclear weapons and international politics is complex and multifaceted. The possession and use of nuclear weapons have far-reaching consequences, and it is essential for the international community to work together to prevent proliferation and promote disarmament. This requires a combination of realist, liberal, and social constructivist approaches, as well as continued dialogue and cooperation among nations.

Democracy

Democracy plays a pivotal role in shaping global diplomacy, governance, and the nature of bilateral and multilateral engagements. Democratic nations often emphasize values such as human rights, rule of law, and political freedom in their foreign policy. The spread of democracy is seen as crucial to maintaining global peace and stability, as democratic nations are believed to engage in fewer conflicts with one another (Democratic Peace Theory).

India, as the world's largest democracy, promotes democratic ideals in its foreign relations, emphasizing peaceful coexistence, non-interference, and support for democratic institutions in other nations. It actively participates in global forums like the United Nations, Commonwealth, and BIMSTEC, where the promotion of democracy, sustainable development, and human rights are key areas of cooperation. Furthermore, India's foreign policy often aligns with its democratic values, supporting democratic transitions in its neighborhood and engaging in international initiatives aimed at fostering democratic governance globally.

Challenges to Democracy

• Authoritarianism and Populism: In various parts of the world, authoritarian regimes are gaining ground. Leaders who promise strong governance often exploit economic hardships and nationalistic sentiments to erode checks and balances, as seen in Turkey, Hungary, and Venezuela. Populist leaders, on the other hand, position themselves as the voice of "the people" against political elites but often undermine democratic institutions to consolidate power.
• Political Polarization and Disinformation: Extreme polarization within societies is increasingly fracturing democracies. In countries like the United States, Brazil, and India, politics has become so divisive that it hampers effective governance. Disinformation, especially on social media, amplifies these divisions, spreading conspiracy theories and eroding trust in elections and democratic institutions. The use of fake news to sway public opinion or discredit opponents has emerged as a significant threat to democracy.
• Economic Inequality: As you mentioned, economic inequality is fueling discontent with democracy. Many citizens in democratic countries feel left behind by globalization and neoliberal policies, leading to growing frustration with the political establishment. This frustration provides fertile ground for populists and authoritarian leaders, who promise to address grievances but often weaken democratic norms once in power.
• Global Crises (Climate Change, Pandemics, Migration)**: These global challenges have highlighted both the strengths and weaknesses of democratic governance. While democracies like New Zealand and Germany were praised for their responses to the COVID-19 pandemic, others struggled with partisan decision-making and ineffective communication, leading to public distrust. Similarly, climate change requires long-term, coordinated policies, but democratic processes are sometimes slow in addressing these urgent issues, especially in the face of vested economic interests.
• Cybersecurity Threats: Increasing cyberattacks on democratic institutions, such as elections and government infrastructures, pose new threats. Foreign interference, seen in cases like the Russian involvement in the 2016 U.S. elections, showcases how democracies are vulnerable to cyber-manipulation, which undermines public confidence in electoral integrity.

As democracies navigate these challenges, there is a need for robust reforms, collaboration, and innovative approaches to restore trust and protect democratic values.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the various aspects of international politics, including human rights, the environment, gender justice, terrorism,  democracy and nuclear weapons, play a crucial role in shaping the global landscape. These issues require a multifaceted approach, drawing from different theories and perspectives to address their complexities effectively. As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, it is essential for nations to work together, engage in dialogue, and promote cooperation to tackle these global challenges and create a more just, secure, and sustainable future for all.