Machiavelli’s and John Locke | PSIR Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Machiavelli's Political Ideas

Introduction to Machiavelli

• Region and Era: Machiavelli was from what is now Italy during a time when the medieval age was ending and the modern age was beginning.
• Renaissance Thinker: He is considered a child of the Renaissance, a period of renewed interest in art, science, and the classics.
• Famous Work: His most renowned book is "The Prince," which offers advice on political leadership and power.

Machiavelli's Perspective as a Thinker

• Realist: Machiavelli is a realist, viewing politics from a power-centric perspective. Realists are sometimes called "children of darkness" because they focus on the harsh realities of political life.
• Materialist: He believes in the primacy of the material world, asserting that human nature is fundamentally materialistic. People are driven by physical and material needs.
• Elitist: Machiavelli distinguishes between the prince (the ruler) and the common people, suggesting that leaders have different responsibilities and perspectives than ordinary citizens.

Instructions Given by Machiavelli

On the Nature of the Profession

• Understanding Politics: Machiavelli emphasizes that politics is a unique profession that often requires difficult choices. He warns that those who focus on what should be, rather than what is, may harm themselves and their people. The reality of political life is far removed from idealistic notions of how it should be.
• Pragmatism in Politics: Politics is not about ethics or finding goodness in every situation. Machiavelli advises that a prince should learn how to be bad rather than good because political life is often harsh and filled with untrustworthy individuals. Trying to find goodness in every aspect of politics can lead to disappointment and danger.

On Human Nature

• Selfishness: Machiavelli argues that humans are inherently selfish, prioritizing their own interests over those of others, including the prince. This selfishness also makes people ungrateful, as they tend to forget the favors done for them when their own interests are at stake. Additionally, selfishness contributes to fickleness, as individuals can easily change their loyalties.
• Cowardice and Fearfulness: Humans are naturally cowardly and fearful, which can be manipulated by the prince to maintain control. By providing security and safety, the prince can ensure loyalty from his subjects.
• Avarice: People are materialistic and have a strong desire for property. By creating conditions that allow individuals to accumulate wealth and property, the prince can secure their loyalty. For example, Machiavelli refers to China’s diplomatic strategy of offering financial incentives to maintain loyalty.
• Wise Prince: Machiavelli advises that a wise prince should avoid confiscating property and instead focus on execution of those who oppose him. Taking property can lead to resentment, while killing an opponent removes the threat without taking their possessions. Additionally, the prince should avoid interfering with the women of his subjects, as men are possessive of their women.

Advice on Qualities of the Prince

• Cunning and Courage: Machiavelli advises that the prince should be both cunning like a fox and brave like a lion. This duality allows the prince to navigate the complexities of politics and defend himself against threats.
• Understanding of Politics: The prince must recognize that politics is not about virtue. It is often necessary to engage in morally questionable actions to succeed.
• Cunning like a Fox: The prince should be able to recognize and avoid traps set by others, using intelligence and cunning to navigate challenges.
• Brave like a Lion: The prince must be prepared to defend himself and his position with strength and courage, particularly against those who would harm him.

On Management of Power

• Statecraft as Power Management: Machiavelli asserts that effective governance is about managing power wisely. The prince must understand how to wield power appropriately and effectively.
• Calculated Actions: The prince should act with cold blood, making decisions based on careful calculations rather than emotions. This approach ensures that actions are strategic and well-thought-out.
• Force and Love: Machiavelli discusses the dual aspects of power: force and love. While love is preferable, force may ultimately be necessary. The prince should rely on force only after careful consideration, as it requires significant resources. When force is used, it should be total, leaving no room for retaliation.

Advice on the Role of Ethics in Politics

• Timeliness in Decision-Making: In politics, decisions must not only be correct but also timely. The prince may encounter ethical dilemmas where the right course of action may conflict with national interests.
• Separation of Ethics and Politics: Machiavelli emphasizes that political actions should be judged by the standards of political ethics, not by religious or moral standards. An action may be ethically wrong but politically correct. The ability of the prince to secure national interests justifies his actions.
• Ends Justifying the Means: If the prince prioritizes means over ends, he will not be excused. However, achieving goals justifies the means used.

Machiavelli on Religion

• Critique of the Church: Machiavelli was not against religion itself but opposed the church because of its corruption and interference in politics, which hindered national interests.
• Utilitarian View of Religion: Machiavelli saw religion as a useful tool for the prince. Religion serves as a disciplinary force, deterring individuals from wrongdoing out of fear of divine punishment.
• Public Religious Persona: He advised princes to appear religious in public, even if they do not personally believe in religion. This public display of piety can help maintain order and influence.

John Locke: Political Ideas

John Locke is recognized as the father of liberalism, a political theory advocating for a limited state where the rights of citizens constrain the powers of the government.

Types of Rights/Theories of Rights

• Customary Rights: These are based on customs and traditions.
• Legal Rights: These rights are granted by law or the state.
• Natural Rights: These rights are inherent by nature and not granted by the state.

Theory of Natural Rights

• Natural rights are granted to individuals by nature or God, and thus the state cannot take them away against the individual's will.
• Every fundamental right is considered a natural right, but not all natural rights are fundamental rights.
• This theory is also the foundation for human rights.

Locke's Philosophical Stance

• Locke is viewed as a scholar of the capitalist class, providing justification for the absolute right to property.
• He is associated with the concept of 'possessive individualism.'

Locke's Contributions

• Theory of Separation of Powers
• Principles of Toleration
• Majoritarian Democracy

Locke's Major Works

1st Treatise:

• Locke wrote this to challenge Thomas Hobbes' theory of the absolute state, which had become controversial and was prohibited by the church.
• Instead, he targeted the theory of absolute state proposed by Robert Filmer in his book Patriarcha.
• Filmer criticized the social contract theory, arguing that it was illogical for future generations to be bound by a contract made by their ancestors.
• He also believed that hereditary succession, rather than contract, was a more logical basis for the right to property.
• Filmer's concept of the state as a Patriarcha, a large family with God as the head, was based on the idea that all kings were descendants of Adam, who had absolute authority as the first king.

2nd Book of Locke:

• In this book, Locke presents his theory of government based on the social contract.
• Locke's View on Human Nature
• Locke's views on human nature are influenced by the stable period he experienced, in contrast to Hobbes, who had a more pessimistic view due to the troubled period in British history.
• Locke's theories are based more on common sense, similar to Aristotle, while Hobbes is more logically consistent like Plato.

Characteristics of Human Nature

• Locke believes in enlightened self-interest, where individuals are self-centered but capable of considering the interests of others.
• He argues that reason and passion are balanced in humans, guiding them not to harm others in terms of life, liberty, health, and property.

State of Nature

• Locke's concept of the state of nature is hypothetical and differs from Hobbes' notion of a state of war.
• In Locke's view, the state of nature is characterized by peace, mutual assistance, and goodwill, where people enjoy their natural rights due to the presence of reason and natural law.

Need for a Contract

• Despite the prevailing peace and goodwill, Locke argues that it is not rational to rely solely on human goodwill.
• Since humans possess both reason and passion, a contract is necessary to ensure protection against potential conflicts.
• Locke also identifies certain inconveniences in the state of nature, such as the absence of a common authority to make, execute, and adjudicate laws.

First Contract and Civil Society

• The first contract leads to the formation of civil society, which includes institutions outside of the family and government.
• Civil society, as envisioned by Locke, is independent of the government and is a feature of liberal democratic societies.
• In the state of nature, individuals enjoyed their rights, but there was no formal recognition or guarantee of these rights.
• Through the first contract, people mutually guaranteed each other's rights by providing formal recognition.

Second Contract

• The second contract results in the establishment of government, where individuals transfer specific rights to the government.
• These rights include the right to make laws, execute laws, and adjudicate laws.
• This leads to the emergence of a common authority with three branches: legislature, executive, and judiciary.
• Individuals do not transfer their rights to life, liberty, and property to the government, as these rights are fundamental and inalienable.

Locke's Theory of Natural Right to Property

• Locke is associated with possessive individualism, advocating for absolute rights over property.
• He argues that property is a product of one's labor, which is an extension of a person's personality.
• If the state takes away a person's property, it violates their dignity and commits an act of aggression.
• Locke justifies absolute rights over not only one's labor but also the labor of slaves and animals, such as horses.

Origin of Property According to Locke

• Initially, property was held in common, but over time, industrious and enterprising individuals became owners, while the lazy and quarrelsome remained poor.
• Locke believed that God created resources like apples, milk, and meat for consumption, not for sacrifice, reflecting a utilitarian perspective.
• Those who are industrious are more likely to lead good lives.

Limitations on Right to Property

• Locke outlines three limitations on the right to property:
• Labor Limitation: Property is justified only if it is the product of labor.
• Right to Property Belongs to All: No one can deprive another of their right to property, countering feudal lords.
• No Right to Spoil Property: Property cannot be wasted or spoiled.
• These limitations primarily favor the capitalist class, emphasizing the sacredness of property as a source of virtuous life.

Locke on Toleration

• Locke advocates for the state's principle of toleration towards followers of different religions.
• Unlike Hobbes, who did not provide for religious freedom, Locke suggests that the state should tolerate people of all religions except atheists, whom he believes should be expelled.