Bipan Chandra Summary: India and her Neighbours | Famous Books for UPSC Exam (Summary & Tests) PDF Download

India's Relations with Neighbours Under British Rule

Factors Influencing Relations

• Development of modern means of communication and political consolidation.
• Alien character of the British Government dictating foreign policy.

British Imperialism and its Impact

• Protection of the Indian Empire and expansion of British commerce.
• Conflict with other imperialist nations over territorial possessions.

European Imperialism in Asia and Africa

Competition for Colonies and Markets

• Intense struggle among European powers for colonies and markets in Africa and Asia.
• Surplus capital and manufactured goods driving commercial rivalry.

Division of Africa and Expansion into Asia

• Russia's expansion in Central Asia and East Asia.
• France's occupation of Indo-China and competition with Britain for control over Thailand and North Burma.
• United States' conquest of Hawaii and Philippines; Japan's annexation of Korea.

Competition over China and Ottoman Empire

• Intense competition for control over different parts of the Chinese Empire.
• Competition among Britain, Russia, and Germany over the Ottoman Empire.

Impact on India

Defense of Indian Empire

• British Indian Government's aggression on India's neighbors to defend the Indian Empire.

Economic Interests and Expenditure

• Utilization of Indian resources and soldiers to serve British interests.
• Heavy military expenditure borne by Indian taxpayers.

Military Expenditure and Revenue

• Significant portion of governmental expenditure allocated to the army.
• Example: More than half of India's revenues spent on the army in 1904.

Overall, India's relations with its neighbors during British rule were largely determined by the needs and interests of British imperialism, leading to conflicts, wars, and heavy economic burdens on India.

War with Nepal, 1814

Background

• The British aimed to extend their Indian Empire to its natural geographical frontier.
• The Kingdom of Nepal, under the Gurkhas, had gradually expanded its sway.

Conflict Arises

• Border clash in October 1814 sparked open war between the British and Gurkhas.
• Ill-defined border brought expanding powers face to face.

Course of the War

• British officials anticipated an easy victory but faced vigorous defense from Gurkhas.
• Gurkhas displayed remarkable bravery and combat prowess.
• British suffered defeats despite numerical superiority.

British Assessment

• Charles Metcalfe highlighted Gurkha bravery surpassing British troops.
• Perceived military superiority was shaken.

Outcome

• In the long run, British superiority in men, money, and materials prevailed.
• Occupation of Kumaon in April 1815 and surrender of Gurkha Commander Amar Singh Thapa in May.

Peace Negotiations

• Nepal compelled to sue for peace, but negotiations broke down over British demand for a Resident at Khatmandu.

Resumption of Hostilities

• Fighting resumed in early 1816.
• British forces won important victories and approached Khatmandu.

Peace Terms

• Nepal Government had to accept British terms: stationing of a Resident, cession of districts, withdrawal from Sikkim.

Advantages for the British

• Expansion of Indian Empire to the Himalayas.
• Greater trade facilitation with Central Asia.
• Acquisition of strategic hill-station sites like Simla, Mussoorie, and Nainital.
• Gurkhas bolstered British-Indian army strength by joining in large numbers.

Post-War Relations

• Despite conflict, relations between British and Nepal became friendly.
• Mutual respect for each other's fighting capacity fostered peaceful coexistence.

The war with Nepal in 1814 marked a significant chapter in British expansion in the Indian subcontinent, showcasing both the military prowess of the Gurkhas and the ultimate superiority of British resources.

Conquest of Burma

Introduction

• British conquest of Burma occurred through three successive wars during the 19th century.
• Conflict initiated by border clashes and fueled by expansionist desires and economic interests.

First Burmese War, 1824-26

• Burma and British India shared a common frontier, leading to continuous friction.
• Burma, under King Bodawpaya, expanded westward, threatening British interests.
• Border disputes escalated due to Arakanese fugitives' raids into Burmese territory and British refusal to neutralize Shahpuri island.
• British Indian authorities declared war, driving Burmese forces out of Assam, Cachar, Manipur, and Arakan.
• War ended with the Treaty of Yandabo in February 1826, resulting in Burmese concessions and British expansion.

Second Burmese War, 1852

• Driven by British commercial interests in Burmese timber and market potential for British goods.
• British merchants complained of restrictions on trade and pressed for stronger action against Burmese government.
• British intervention escalated due to minor grievances, leading to a blockade of Rangoon and eventual war.
• Rangoon captured by British forces, followed by annexation of Pegu without formal treaty.
• Guerrilla resistance continued for three years before Lower Burma came under British control.

Third Burmese War, 1885

• British desire to prevent French influence and secure trade routes to China through Burma.
• Increasing British interference in Burmese internal affairs and resentment towards King Thibaw's policies.
• British merchants and officials pressed for annexation of Upper Burma, exploiting a pretext for war.
• Burmese government's rejection of British demands led to British invasion in November 1885.
• King Thibaw surrendered, and Burma was annexed to the Indian Empire.

Consequences and Resistance

• Resistance from patriotic soldiers and officers through guerrilla warfare and popular rebellion.
• British suppression efforts necessitated a significant military presence and financial burden on Indian exchequer.

Nationalist Movement and Independence

• Post-World War I, nationalist movement in Burma intensified.
• Burma separated from India in 1935, but nationalist struggle continued, culminating in independence on January 4, 1948.

The conquest of Burma by the British Empire was driven by economic interests, strategic considerations, and imperial rivalry, leading to significant consequences for both Burma and India.

Relations with Afghanistan

Introduction

• Two wars fought by the British Indian Government with Afghanistan before stabilization of relations.
• Indo-Afghan relations intertwined with Anglo-Russian rivalry in the 19th century.

Anglo-Russian Rivalry

• British and Russian expansionist interests clashed, particularly in Central Asia.
• British apprehensions about Russian threats to Indian dominion led to concerns about Afghanistan.
• Anglo-Russian rivalry extended to conflicts like the Crimean War (1855).

Strategic Importance of Afghanistan

• Afghanistan's geographic position crucial for British interests as a buffer against Russian expansion.
• Could serve as an advanced post to check Russian military threat and promote British commercial interests in Central Asia.

British Policy towards Afghanistan

• Active phase initiated in 1835 under Lord Palmerston's Foreign Secretaryship.
• Afghanistan ruled by Dost Muhammed facing internal and external threats, sought powerful allies.
• Dost Muhammed attempted alliance with British, resisted Russian advances, but failed to secure British support.

The First Afghan War

• Lord Auckland decided to replace Dost Muhammed with Shah Shuja, signing a treaty to aid Shah Shuja's return to power.
• Alliance launched an attack on Afghanistan in February 1839, with British forces leading the charge.
• Kabul fell to British in August 1839, but Shah Shuja's rule was resented by Afghans, leading to rising opposition.
• British faced increasing resistance, Dost Muhammed captured, but Afghan uprising in November 1841 forced British evacuation.

Consequences and Criticisms

• First Afghan War condemned by historians as imperialistic, immoral, and politically disastrous.
• Cost India heavily in terms of finances and human lives, with significant distrust and hostility from Afghanistan towards the British Indian Government.
• Years passed before Afghanistan's suspicions were somewhat alleviated.

The First Afghan War highlighted the complexities of imperialistic ambitions and power struggles in the region, leading to significant consequences for both Afghanistan and British India.

Policy of Non-Interference

Inauguration of Anglo-Afghan Friendship (1855)

• 1855: Treaty of friendship between Dost Muhammed and the Government of India.
• Promised to maintain friendly relations, respect territories, and abstain from interference in internal affairs.
• Dost Muhammed agreed to be "friend of friends of East India Company, enemy of its enemies."

Period of Non-Interference (Post-1864)

• Policy vigorously pursued by Lord Lawrence and successors after 1864.
• As Russia resumed focus on Central Asia post-Crimean War, British policy aimed at strengthening Afghanistan as a buffer.
• Assistance provided to the Amir to maintain internal discipline and independence from foreign influences.

Resurgence of Imperialism and Second Afghan War

• From 1870 onwards, global resurgence of imperialism, intensification of Anglo-Russian rivalry.
• British sought direct control over Afghanistan for commercial and strategic interests.
• Desire to prevent Afghanistan aligning with Russia, fear of Russian invasion of India.

Second Anglo-Afghan War

• 1878: British attack on Afghanistan to force terms, leading to the Treaty of Gandamak (May 1879).
• British secured border districts, right to keep Resident at Kabul, and control over Afghanistan's foreign policy.
• British Resident, Major Cavagnari, killed in 1879 uprising, leading to British invasion and occupation.

Shift in Policy under Lord Ripon

• Change in British government led to reversal of aggressive policy, return to non-interference.
• Lord Ripon recognized Abdur Rahman as ruler of Afghanistan, withdrew demand for Resident, agreed to pay subsidy.
• Afghanistan lost control of foreign policy but retained internal autonomy.

Third Anglo-Afghan War and Independence

• First World War and Russian Revolution shifted dynamics in Anglo-Afghan relations.
• Afghanistan demanded full independence from British control, leading to war declaration in 1919.
• Peace treaty in 1921 granted Afghanistan independence in foreign affairs.

This period saw a fluctuation between aggressive intervention and non-interference in Afghan affairs, influenced by shifting geopolitical dynamics and imperialistic ambitions.

Relations with Sikkim

Early Interactions

• 1835: Raja of Sikkim ceded Darjeeling territory to British in exchange for annual grant.
• 1849: Minor quarrel led to British troops entering Sikkim, resulting in cession of 1700 sq. miles.

Further Conflicts and Treaty of 1861

• 1860: Clash between British and Sikkim troops; peace treaty signed in 1861 reducing Sikkim to virtual protectorate.
• Raja expelled Diwan, paid fine, compensated British losses, opened trade, and limited transit duty to India-Tibet trade.

Tibetan Conflict and Anglo-Chinese Agreement (1886-1890)

• 1886: Tibetans attempted control over Sikkim with pro-Tibetan rulers' support.
• Government of India intervened militarily in 1888, final settlement in 1890 recognized Sikkim as British protectorate.

Relations with Bhutan

Early Relations and British Interests

• After 1774: Warren Hastings established trade relations with Bhutan allowing Bengal to trade with Tibet through Bhutan.
• 1815 onwards: British interests focused on territory containing duars (passes) for a well-defined border and tea lands.

Conflict and Treaty of 1865

• Intermittent raids by Bhutanese on Bengal side led to strained relations.
• 1863: Brief war resulted in Bhutan ceding Bengal and Assam duars in 1865 treaty for annual payment.
• Government of India gained control over Bhutan's defense and foreign relations, promised non-interference in internal affairs.

These historical events illustrate the evolving nature of relations between British India and the neighboring states of Sikkim and Bhutan, shaped by territorial disputes, strategic interests, and the assertion of British imperial power.