Guptas, Vakatakas and Vardhanas - I - UPSC PDF Download

Introduction

• The decline of the Kushanas in North India led to the emergence of the Gupta dynasty, which successfully established a vast empire encompassing nearly all of North India. The Gupta rulers benefitted from several material advantages that enabled them to build this empire. Their base in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar was highly fertile, and they were able to harness the iron ore resources of Central India and Bihar.
• The Gupta era was characterized by significant advancements in art, architecture, and literature, and their rule lasted until around A.D. 550. Following the fall of the Gupta dynasty, several regional kingdoms emerged in North India. Additionally, during the period of A.D. 550-750, South India saw the rise of two prominent kingdoms under the Chalukyas and the Pallavas.

Political History

The Gupta dynasty was established by Shrigupta, who probably belonged to the vaishya caste. He hailed from either Magadha (Bihar) or Prayaga (eastern U.P.). His son Ghatotkacha, who carried the title of maharaja, appears to be some small king about whom nothing much is known.

1. Chandragupta I

• Chandragupta I (AD 319-334) is considered the true founder of the Gupta Empire. His ascension to the throne in AD 319 marked the beginning of the Gupta era, which was used in all official records and documents of the empire and its feudatories. Chandragupta held the title of maharajadhiraja, meaning "king of kings."
• He married a Lichchhavi princess named Kumaradevi, and this marriage was commemorated through a series of gold coins issued by Chandragupta. This marital alliance provided the Gupta king with legitimacy, prestige, and increased power. Chandragupta ruled over several regions, including Magadha (present-day Bihar), Saket (modern Ayodhya), and Prayaga (now Allahabad), with his capital situated in Pataliputra (currently Patna).

2. Samudragupta

• Samudragupta, the son of Chandragupta, ascended to the throne in A.D. 335 and ruled until A.D. 375. During his reign, he pursued a policy of conquest, significantly expanding his kingdom. His accomplishments are documented in a lengthy inscription, known as prashasti, composed in Sanskrit by his court poet, Harisena. This inscription, found on a pillar in Allahabad, details the people and regions that Samudragupta conquered.
• In his conquests, Samudragupta adopted different strategies for different areas. In the Ganga-Yamuna doab region, he followed a policy of annexation, defeating nine Naga rulers and integrating their kingdoms into the Gupta empire. He then moved on to conquer the central Indian forest kingdoms, known as atavirajyas, where he defeated the rulers and forced them into servitude. This region held strategic importance, as it contained a route to southern India.
• Samudragupta continued his conquests along the eastern coast, defeating twelve kings along the way, and reached as far as Kanchi, near present-day Chennai. Instead of annexing these southern kingdoms, however, he chose to restore their rulers to their thrones. This policy of political conciliation was adopted because Samudragupta recognized the challenges of maintaining control and subservience over these regions once he returned to his northern capital. It was sufficient for him that these southern states acknowledged his authority and paid him tribute and gifts.
• According to the Allahabad inscription, five neighboring frontier kingdoms and nine republican states in Punjab and western India were intimidated by Samudragupta's conquests. They agreed to pay him tribute and taxes, and to obey his orders without any resistance. Furthermore, the inscription states that Samudragupta received tributes from several kings in southeast Asia. Although his influence extended over a vast area, it is believed that he maintained direct administrative control primarily over the Indo-Gangetic basin.
• Samudragupta celebrated his conquests by performing a horse sacrifice (ashvamedha) and issuing ashvamedha-type coins, which depicted scenes of the sacrifice. In addition to being a conqueror, Samudragupta was also a poet, musician, and patron of learning. His passion for music is evident on his coins, which portray him playing the vina (lute).

Gupta Period

3. Chandragupta II

• Chandragupta II (AD 375-414), also known as Chandragupta Vikramaditya, succeeded his father Samudragupta and expanded the Gupta Empire beyond its previous boundaries. He strengthened his position by forming matrimonial alliances with other royal families of that era. Chandragupta II married the Naga princess, Kuvernaga, and had a daughter named Prabhavati. Prabhavati was married to Rudrasena II of the Vakataka dynasty, which ruled in the Deccan region.
• Following her husband's death, Prabhavati served as a regent for her minor son with the support of her father. This allowed Chandragupta II to effectively control the Vakataka territory, enabling him to better target his adversaries. His most significant military accomplishment was his victory over the Shaka kings, who had ruled in western India for three centuries. This conquest expanded the Gupta Empire to the western coast. An iron pillar inscription at Mehrauli in Delhi suggests that his empire also encompassed north-western India and Bengal. Chandragupta II adopted the title Vikramaditya, meaning "the one who is as powerful as the sun."
• Chandragupta II is renowned for his patronage of art and literature. He is believed to have supported nine luminaries (navaratna) in his court, the most famous of whom was the revered Sanskrit poet and playwright Kalidasa. The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Fa Hien (AD 404-411) visited India during Chandragupta II's reign and documented the lives of the Indian people in the fifth century AD.

4. Decline

• Kumaragupta (AD 415-455) succeeded Chandragupta II as the ruler of the Gupta Empire. Although he managed to maintain his father's empire, the Hunas of Central Asia posed a significant threat during the latter part of his reign. After conquering Bactria, the Hunas crossed the Hindukush Mountains and invaded India, but their initial attack during Kumaragupta's reign was repelled by prince Skandagupta. However, the Gupta Empire could not withstand the subsequent Huna invasions, which ultimately weakened and contributed to the disintegration of the empire.
• By AD 485, the Hunas had occupied eastern Malwa and a significant portion of central India, as well as Punjab and Rajasthan. Toramana, an important Huna ruler in India, conquered an area that extended up to Eran, near Bhopal, in central India. His son Mihirkula succeeded him in AD 515 and was known for his tyrannical and iconoclastic nature. Mihirkula was ultimately defeated by Yashodharman of Malwa and Narasimhagupta Baladitya of the Gupta dynasty, but this victory could not restore the Gupta Empire.
• In addition to the Huna invasions, a decline in economic prosperity also contributed to the fall of the Gupta Empire. This is evidenced by the gold coins of later Gupta rulers, which had a lower gold content and higher alloy content. The gradual disappearance of coins in the post-Gupta period led to kings making payments in land rather than cash.
• The practice of granting land to Brahmanas and officers for religious and secular purposes in lieu of services rendered to the state is referred to as feudalism. This practice gave the donee (the recipient of the land grant) the right to collect taxes and administer the donated land, resulting in the creation of small pockets of power that continually sought to expand their influence at the expense of the ruling authority.
• The decline of the Gupta Empire led to the emergence of various ruling dynasties in different parts of northern India, such as the Pushyabhutis of Thanesar, Maukharies of Kanauj, and Maitrakas of Valabhi. Similarly, in Peninsular India, the Chalukyas and Pallavas rose as strong regional powers in the Deccan and northern Tamil Nadu, respectively.

Maitrakas

• The Maitrakas were initially tributary chiefs under the Gupta Empire but later established their own independent kingdom in western India. Dhruvasena II was the most prominent ruler among the Maitrakas and was married to the daughter of Harshavardhana, a contemporary Indian emperor. The Chinese traveler Hsuan Tsang mentioned that Dhruvasena II was present at Harsha's assembly in Prayaga, now known as Allahabad.
• The Maitrakas ruled over the region of Saurashtra in present-day Gujarat and established Valabhi as their capital city. Valabhi soon became an important center for learning and, due to its location on the Arabian Sea, a thriving port town with flourishing trade and commerce. The Maitraka dynasty continued to rule until the mid-eighth century when their power was weakened by Arab invasions.

Maukharies

• The Maukharies ruled over Kanauj, a city in western Uttar Pradesh, which gradually replaced Pataliputra as a political center of north India. Maukharies were also the subordinate rulers of the Guptas and used the title of samanta. 
• Harshavardhana’s sister Rajyashri was married to Grihavarman. Shashanka, the ruler of Bengal (Gaur), and Devgupta, the Later Gupta ruler jointly attacked Grihavarman and killed him. The kingdom of Kanauj was then merged with that of the Pushyabhutis and Harsha shifted his capital from Thanesar (Kurukshetra) to Kanauj.

Pushyabhutis of Thanesar

• The Pushyabhuti dynasty, with their capital at Thanesar (Thanesvara in Kurukshetra), rose to prominence after the fall of the Gupta Empire. The dynasty's influence grew significantly under the rule of Prabhakarvardhana, who defeated the Hunas and consolidated his power in Punjab and Haryana. Upon his death, his elder son Rajyavardhana ascended the throne but was treacherously killed by Shashanka, the king of Bengal and Bihar.
• Harshavardhana, who was only sixteen years old at the time, then took the throne in 606 AD. Despite his youth, he proved to be a skilled warrior and capable administrator. Two valuable sources provide insight into Harshavardhana's life and reign (606–647): Harshacarita, written by his court poet Banabhatta, and Si-Yu-Ki, the travel account of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Hsuan Tsang, who visited India between 629 and 644 AD.
• Upon becoming king, Harshavardhana united his kingdom with that of his widowed sister Rajayashri and moved his capital to Kanauj, where he became known as the lord of the north (sakalauttarapathanatha). During his rule, he managed to bring Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa under his control. Harsha attempted to expand his power into the Deccan region but was defeated by Pulakesin II, the Chalukya ruler, at the banks of the Narmada River. As a result, the river became the southern boundary of his kingdom.

Harsha's death in 647 AD led to a period of political instability that lasted until the eighth century when the Gurjara Pratiharas, the Rajput rulers, emerged as a powerful force in northern India.

Peninsular India

• The Vakatakas were a regional power in peninsular India, ruling over northern Maharashtra and Vidarbha. Their history can be pieced together through numerous land grant charters given to the Brahmanas.
• Rudrasena II, a member of the royal Vakataka family, married Prabhavatigupta, the daughter of Chandragupta II from the imperial Gupta family. The Vakataka kingdom played a significant cultural role as it served as a conduit for spreading Brahmanical culture to southern India.

Chalukyas (Sixth-Eighth Century A.D.)

• The Chalukyas were a significant force in the history of the Deccan and South India for approximately two centuries, starting from the 6th century A.D. They established their kingdom in the western Deccan region, with their capital at Vatapi (present-day Badami in Karnataka). The Chalukya kingdom gained prominence during the rule of Pulakesin II (A.D. 610–642), who is considered the most notable ruler of the Chalukyas.
• Pulakesin II not only strengthened his authority in Maharashtra but also expanded his kingdom across a large portion of the Deccan. Around A.D. 630, he defeated Harshavardhana and earned the title of dakshinapatheshvara, which means "lord of the south." However, in approximately A.D. 642, Pulakesin II faced defeat and death at the hands of the Pallava king Narasimhavarman.
• This event sparked a prolonged political struggle between the Pallavas and Chalukyas, which lasted for over a century and experienced numerous fluctuations in power. By A.D. 757, the Rashtrakutas, who were vassals of the Chalukyas, overthrew them. The era of the Chalukyas is culturally significant for the development of art and architecture in the Deccan region.

Deccan & South India

Pallavas

• The Pallavas were a powerful dynasty that established their authority over southern Andhra Pradesh and northern Tamil Nadu, with their capital situated in Kanchi. Under their rule, Kanchi became a significant temple town as well as a hub for trade and commerce. The Pallavas' rise to power occurred during the reigns of Mahendravarman (AD 600-630) and Narasimhavarman I (AD 630-668).
• Throughout their rule, the Pallavas were engaged in continuous conflicts with the Chalukyas of Vatapi in the north, and the Tamil kingdoms of Cholas and Pandyas in the south. Eventually, their rule in southern India was supplanted by the imperial Cholas.
• The Pallava reign had immense cultural significance for the development of Tamil bhakti literature and the Dravidian style of art and architecture in southern India. Under the Pallavas, Mahabalipuram, located south of Chennai, became a prominent center for temple architecture.

Administrative System (C.A.D.300–750)

• During the Mauryan period, political authority was heavily centralized, with power concentrated in the hands of the king. However, the Gupta administration was more decentralized, with local kings and smaller chiefs (feudatories) ruling large parts of the empire. The imperial Guptas adopted grand titles like maharajadhiraja, parambhattaraka, and parameshvara, while the lesser rulers used titles such as raja and maharaja.
• Kingship was generally hereditary, and the king was at the center of the administration. He was aided by princes, ministers, and advisors, with princes often serving as viceroys of provinces. Provinces were referred to as desha, rashtra, or bhukti, and their leaders were called uparika. These provinces were further divided into districts known as pradesha or vishaya, which were overseen by vishayapati.
• Districts were then divided into villages, with the village headman, or gramadhyaksha, managing village affairs with the help of village elders. Artisans and merchants played an active role in the town administration during the Gupta period. Overall, the Gupta bureaucracy was less complex than that of the Mauryas.
• High-ranking central officers under the Guptas were called kumaramatyas. Key officials like mantri and senapati were all recruited from this group. Administrative posts were often hereditary, and individuals sometimes held multiple offices, such as Harisena, who served as both a chief judicial officer and a minister for war and peace. While the ruler typically appointed high-ranking officers, the hereditary nature of the positions likely weakened royal control over the administration.
• Land taxes increased significantly during the Gupta period, with the tax called bali ranging from 1/4th to 1/6th of the total produce. Two new agricultural taxes, uparikara and udranga, also emerged during this time, though their exact nature is unclear. Peasants were subject to the demands of feudatories and had to provide for the royal army when it passed through their villages. They were also subjected to forced labor (vishti).
• The judicial system developed further under the Gupta rulers, with clear distinctions between civil and criminal laws. Civil law governed property disputes and laid down elaborate inheritance laws, while criminal law dealt with theft and adultery. The king, with the help of brahmanas, upheld the law and tried cases. Merchant and artisan guilds were governed by their own laws.
• Harsha governed his empire similarly to the Guptas, but with a more decentralized administration and an increased number of feudatories. During his reign, officers and religious individuals were primarily paid in land, which encouraged the growth of feudalism. Law and order appeared to be less well-maintained during Harsha's time, as evidenced by the Chinese traveler Hsuan Tsang being robbed twice during his journey through India, unlike Fa Hien, who faced no such difficulties during the Gupta period.

Society

• During the Gupta period in ancient India, society underwent significant changes. The Brahmanas, a priestly class, gained more power and influence as they received large land grants from rulers and other people. With these grants came administrative rights and tax exemptions, leading to the creation of a new class of Brahmana landlords. These landlords, supported by the king, often exploited the peasants they governed.
• During this time, the caste system expanded, with a large number of tribal people and some foreigners, such as the Hunas, being assimilated into the Brahmanical social structure of the varna system. While the leaders of these groups were included as Kshatriyas, the ordinary tribal members were given the status of Shudras.
• The position of the Shudras improved slightly during this period, as they were allowed to listen to the epics and Puranas and perform some domestic rituals previously prohibited to them. The Chinese traveler Hsuan Tsang referred to Shudras as agriculturists and Vaishyas as traders.
• A distinction was made between Shudras and untouchables, with the latter being considered lower in status. The untouchables, known as Chandalas, lived outside the village and performed unclean jobs such as scavenging or butchery. The Chinese traveler Fa-Hien described how Chandalas would announce their presence in towns or markets to avoid polluting others through contact.
• Slavery was also present in Gupta society, with domestic servants primarily employed in cleaning and sweeping. Prisoners of war, debt bondsmen, and those born to slave women were considered slaves.
• The status of women continued to decline during the Gupta period, as they were entirely dependent on men for their livelihood. Women were not entitled to inherit property but had full rights to their stridhana, the presents received by a bride at her marriage. There was no purdah system, as evidenced by the free representation of females in art; however, the sati system, where a widow immolates herself on her husband's funeral pyre, began to emerge during this time. The first recorded evidence of sati is found in an inscription from AD 510 at Eran in Madhya Pradesh.

Economy

• The period between the 4th and 8th centuries was marked by significant agricultural expansion. Large areas of land were cultivated, and existing production methods were improved to achieve higher yields. This growth was partly due to the practice of granting lands to Brahmanas and secular officers in various regions, which led to the cultivation of previously unused land.
• Advancements in agricultural techniques, such as the use of iron ploughshares, manure, irrigation, and the preservation of cattle wealth in less developed areas, also contributed to rural prosperity. However, this prosperity did not extend to the peasants, who continued to bear the burden of heavy taxation.
• During the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, there was a relative decline in trade and commerce within the country. Trade with the Eastern Roman Empire continued until around 550 AD, with India exporting silk and spices. However, by the 6th century, the Romans had learned the art of silkworm rearing, which negatively impacted India's foreign trade in silk. Additionally, the disruption of the northwestern trade route by the Hunas contributed to this decline.
• India attempted to compensate for these losses by trading with Southeast Asian countries, but this was not enough to significantly revive the economy. The decrease in trade led to a reduction in the inflow of gold and silver into the country, as evidenced by the scarcity of gold coins after the Gupta period.
• The Gupta rulers did issue a large number of gold coins called dinaras, but the gold content in these coins decreased with each successive ruler after Chandragupta II, as more alloy was added. Following the Gupta dynasty, very few coins have been found from other ruling dynasties. This lack of coinage suggests that, after the fall of the Guptas, a self-sufficient economic system with limited trade prevailed.

Literature

• The Gupta period is often regarded as the Golden Age of art and literature due to the extensive compilation of religious and secular works created during this time. In the fourth century, the two major epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, which symbolize the triumph of good over evil, were completed. Both Rama and Krishna started to be viewed as incarnations of the Hindu god Vishnu.
• During the Gupta period, the creation of the Puranas, a collection of literature that tells stories of Hindu gods and how to worship them, began. Important Puranas from this time include the Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana, and Matsya Purana. The Shiv Purana was written for the worship of the god Shiva, while the Varaha Purana, Vamana Purana, and Narasimha Purana glorified the different incarnations of Vishnu. These texts were meant to guide the common people in their worship. Additionally, law books called Smritis were compiled, with the Narada Smriti providing insight into the social and economic norms of the time.
• Sanskrit was the primary language used for literature during the Gupta period. One of the most renowned poets was Kalidasa, who lived in the court of Chandragupta II in the fifth century AD. His works, including Meghadutam, Abhijnanashakuntalam, Raghuvamsha, Kumarasambhava, and Ritusamhara, have been translated into numerous languages. A unique characteristic of his work is the use of Sanskrit for higher-caste characters' dialogues, while lower-caste characters and women speak in Prakrit.
• Other notable dramatists from the Gupta period include Shudraka, who wrote Mrichchhkatikam, and Vishakhadatta, who authored Mudrarakshasa. In the seventh century, Banabhatta, the court poet of Harsha, wrote Harshacarita, which praises his patron in an elaborate style and serves as a model for later writers. This text also helps to reconstruct the early history of Harsha. Moreover, Banabhatta wrote another text called Kadambari.
• Harsha himself was considered a literary monarch and is believed to have written three plays: Priyadarshika, Nagananda, and Ratnavali. In South India, between AD 550 and 750, the Bhakti literature in Tamil flourished. Vaishnava saints (Alvars) and Saiva saints (Nayannaras) composed songs praising their respective gods. Andal, a famous Alvar saint, was a woman who contributed to this body of work. The Vaishnava devotional songs were later compiled into a text called Nalayira Prabandham, while the Saivite songs were preserved in a text known as Devarama.

Art and Architecture

• Ancient Indian art was predominantly influenced by religion, with Buddhism playing a significant role in inspiring artistic creations during the Gupta period. A notable example of this is a life-size copper statue of Buddha discovered in Sultanganj, Bihar. Exquisite Buddha statues were also crafted in Mathura and Sarnath.
• One of the finest illustrations of Buddhist art from the Gupta era is the paintings in the Ajanta caves, which depict the life of Buddha and the Jataka stories. These vibrant paintings have maintained their brilliance for over 14 centuries and are now recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Gupta period marked the first time temples were constructed in northern India as structured buildings, adopting the Nagara architectural style. Two such temples have been discovered in Uttar Pradesh: a brick temple in Bhitargaon and a stone temple in Deogarh. In these temples, the central deity is the image of Vishnu.
• The Gupta coins are also remarkable pieces of art, featuring intricate designs and detailed depictions of the rulers' activities. The lyrist type of gold coins issued by Samudragupta, for instance, portray him playing a lute, indicating his interest in music. He also issued ashvamedha type of coins, as mentioned above. The worship of Vishnu and Shiva gained popularity in peninsular India during this time as well.

Deogarh Nar-Narayan

• The Pallava rulers constructed stone temples in seventh and eighth centuries to house the images of these gods. The most famous are the seven rathas or temples each made out of a solid, piece of stone constructed by king Narasimhavarman at Mahabalipuram, 65 km from Chennai. The Pallavas also built many structural temples. 
• One of the most important among them is the Kailashnath temple, constructed in the eighth century.  The Chalukyas of Vatapi also erected numerous temples at Aihole, Badami andPattadakal. Pattadakal has as many as ten temples built in seventh and eighth centuries and Virupaksha temple. The southern style of architecture came to be known as Dravida.

Religion

• The Gupta rulers were known for their patronage of Bhagvatism, a religious tradition centered on the worship of Vishnu and his incarnations. However, they were also tolerant of other religions, allowing Buddhism to flourish during their reign. Chinese pilgrims Fa Hien and Hsuan Tsang, who visited India during the time of Chandragupta II and Harsha, noted the prominence of Buddhism. Harsha, initially a follower of Shaivism, converted to Buddhism and became a significant patron of the religion. He organized an assembly at Kanauj to promote Mahayanaism, and under his rule, Nalanda developed into a significant educational center for Mahayana Buddhism, attracting international students.
• Bhagvatism emphasized the principles of bhakti (loving devotion) and ahimsa (non-killing of animals) rather than Vedic rituals and sacrifices. It was an inclusive religion that welcomed lower classes into its fold. The Bhagavadgita, the primary text of Bhagvatism, states that whenever there was social unrest, Vishnu would take human form to save the people. Consequently, ten incarnations of Vishnu were recognized, with the Puranas written to extol the virtues of each incarnation. Temples housing idols of these gods were constructed during the Gupta period.
• In South India, from the seventh century onwards, Tamil saints called Alvars and Nayannaras popularized the concept of bhakti. The Alvar saints promoted the worship of Vishnu, while the Nayannar saints focused on the worship of Shiva. During this time, Tantrism also spread across India. Starting from the fifth century, Brahmanas began receiving land in tribal areas such as Nepal, Assam, Bengal, Orissa, central India, and Deccan. This led to the assimilation of tribal elements into Brahmanical society, with Brahmanas adopting tribal rituals, gods, and goddesses. This assimilation resulted in the development of Tantrism, which did not discriminate based on caste or gender and recognized women and Shudras as members. Tantrism emphasized the "female" as a source of power and energy, and its concepts affected Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Buddhism, and Jainism, leading to the worship of female deities in these religions.

Science and Technology

• During the Gupta period, significant advancements were made in the fields of science and technology, as evidenced by the important texts written during this time. One of the most notable works is Aryabhatiyam, an astronomical text authored by Aryabhatta, a renowned astronomer and mathematician in the 5th century. Aryabhatta was the first to propose that the Earth rotates on its axis, revolves around the sun, and causes eclipses. He also invented the concept of "zero" and introduced the use of the decimal system.
• Another prominent scholar of this era was Varahamihira, who lived at the end of the 6th century. As a distinguished astronomer, he authored numerous books on the subject, including Panchasiddhantika, which explores five different astronomical systems. Additionally, the well-known mathematician Brahmagupta lived during the Gupta period.
• Technological advancements were also made in the field of metallurgy during this time. The large-scale production of bronze Buddha statues serves as an example of the sophisticated technology of the era. The 23-foot tall iron pillar at Mehrauli in Delhi further demonstrates the advanced iron technology of the Gupta period. Remarkably, this pillar has not rusted despite being exposed to the elements for over 15 centuries.
• The exquisite Ajanta paintings, which have remained intact over time, also showcase the impressive artistry and color-making techniques developed during the Gupta period.

Conclusion

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of The Guptas & Their Successors (A.D.300–750)

Who was the real founder of the Gupta Empire?

The real founder of the Gupta Empire was Chandragupta I (AD 319–334), who marked the beginning of the Gupta era.

Who was the greatest ruler of the Chalukyas?

Pulakesin II (AD 610–642) was the greatest ruler of the Chalukyas, who consolidated his authority in Maharashtra and conquered large parts of Deccan.

What was the significance of land grants during the Gupta period?

Land grants were significant during the Gupta period as they helped in bringing virgin land under the plough, spreading knowledge regarding agricultural methods, and expanding the empire's agricultural production.

Which literature was written during the Gupta period, and who were the notable authors?

The Gupta period saw the creation of a vast body of religious and secular literature, including the two great epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, as well as various Puranas and Smritis. The most famous poet of this period was Kalidasa, who authored works such as Meghadutam, Abhijnanashakuntalam, Raghuvamsha, Kumarasambhava, and Ritusamhara.

How did the status of women change during the Gupta period?

During the Gupta period, the status of women continued to decline, with women becoming more dependent on men for their livelihood and losing their entitlement to inherit property. However, there was no purdah system, and the practice of sati (immolation of widow) was only just beginning to emerge.