Social Reforms Movements During Colonial Period | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Social Reforms Movements During Colonial Period

Reform movements aim to improve conditions within an existing social system without altering the fundamental structure of society. These movements are often associated with the belief systems, rituals, and lifestyles of the people involved. In India, there have been several notable reform movements.

• One of the most famous reform movements in India was the Bhakti movement during the medieval period. This movement was widespread across India and included people from lower castes and the poor. The Bhakti movement emphasized the importance of love for God as the central aspect of religion, while protesting against ritualism and caste barriers. Its primary objective was to reform people's worldviews and social practices, without seeking to radically transform the social system. Instead, it advocated for partial changes in the value system.
• The 19th century witnessed several reform movements that led to socio-cultural regeneration in India. The formation of the Brahmo Samaj in Bengal in 1828 marked the beginning of this regeneration, and the organization eventually established branches in various parts of the country. Other Hindu reform movements included the Prarthana Samaj in Maharashtra and the Arya Samaj in Punjab and North India. Additionally, organizations led by members of backward castes and other religious groups also undertook reformation work. For instance, the Satya Shodhak Samaj of Jyothiba Phule in Maharashtra and the Sri Narayan Dharma Paripalan Sabha in Kerala were initiated by backward castes. Similarly, the Ahmadiya and Aligarh movements represented reform efforts among Muslims, while the Sikhs had their Singh Sabha and the Parsees had the Rehnumai Mazdeyasan Sabha.

Arya Samaj

The Arya Samaj movement emerged as a reaction to Western influences and aimed to revive the ancient Aryan religion. Swami Dayanand, the founder, rejected Western ideas and sought to restore the ancient faith of the Aryans. Dayanand, born as Mulshanker in 1824 in Gujarat, was taught by his father about Vedic literature, logic, philosophy, and ethics. His pursuit of truth led him to leave home and wander around India, studying Yoga for fifteen years (1845-60). In 1875, he established the first Arya Samaj unit in Bombay, and later, the headquarters in Lahore.

• Dayanand's main goal was to promote Aryan religion as the common faith of all, a society without class or caste distinctions, and an India free from foreign rule. He considered the Vedas as the true origin of Hinduism and encouraged people to return to the Vedas. He rejected later religious texts, blaming them for the spread of idol worship, and preached the unity of God. This led to the publication of his famous work, Satyartha Prakash (The True Exposition).
• Dayanand strongly criticized various practices that had crept into Hinduism in the 19th century, such as idolatry, polytheism, belief in magic, animal sacrifices, and feeding the dead through Shraddhs. He rejected the popular Hindu philosophy of monism and stressed the importance of right actions for salvation. Dayanand also challenged the Brahmin priestly class's dominance in Hindu spiritual and social life and condemned the caste system based on birth.
• Despite his call to return to the Vedas, Dayanand embraced modernity and displayed a patriotic attitude towards national issues. The Arya Samaj's principles, first defined in Bombay in 1875 and revised in Lahore in 1877, promote the well-being of the world, material, spiritual, and social, and emphasize education and rational thinking.
• The Arya Samaj movement contributed significantly to social reform and education. It based its social program on the Vedas' authority, combined with rationalism and utilitarianism. The movement's social ideals include the fatherhood of God, brotherhood of man, equality of sexes, absolute justice, love, and charity. The Arya Samaj also played a crucial role in protecting Hindu society from the onslaught of Islam and Christianity and promoting patriotism.
• The movement's influence extended to the masses of India, with deep roots in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Rajasthan. The Arya Samaj movement instilled pride, self-confidence, and self-reliance in Hindus, undermining the belief in the white race and Western culture's superiority. As a disciplined Hindu organization, it not only protected Hindu society but also converted non-Hindus to Hinduism through the Shuddhi movement.

Satya Shodhak Samaj 

Jyothirao Govindrao Phule (1827-1890), also known as Jyotiba, was a prominent social reformer in western India who fought for the rights of lower castes. Born in Poona in 1827 into a Mali caste, Jyotiba's family supplied flowers and garlands to the Peshwa's family, thus adopting the name Phule.

• Jyotiba's perspective on social issues changed due to a few incidents where he experienced Brahminical arrogance. In one instance, he was scolded and insulted by a Brahmin for participating in a Brahmin marriage procession. Moreover, Brahmins opposed Jyotiba's efforts to establish a school for lower castes and women, forcing him to close it.
• Jyotiba believed that Brahmins used religion as a pretext to oppress other castes and enslave them. He criticized the Indian National Congress leaders for neglecting the interests of weaker sections in society, arguing that the Congress could not be truly national unless it addressed the welfare of lower and backward castes.
• In 1873, Jyotiba founded the Satya Shodhak Samaj (Truth-Seeking Society) to promote social justice for marginalized communities. He established several schools and orphanages for children and women from all castes. In 1876, he was elected as a member of the Poona Municipal Committee.
• Jyotiba's notable publications include Dharma Tritiya Ratiya Ratna (Exposure of the Puranas), Ishara (A Warning), and Life of Shivaji. In 1888, he was honored with the title Mahatma.

Sri Narayan Guru Dharma Paripalana Sabha (SNDP)

Sri Narayan Guru Dharma Paripalana Sabha (SNDP) is an organization established by Sri Narayan Guru (1854-1928) in Kerala, India. Narayan Guru was a leader of the Ezhava caste, which was considered an untouchable caste in the Indian caste system. He aimed to uplift the Ezhava community through a two-point program.

• Firstly, Narayan Guru encouraged the Ezhava caste to abandon the practice of untouchability towards castes lower than theirs. Secondly, he built several temples that were open to all castes, in addition to simplifying rituals related to marriage, religious worship, and funerals. Through these efforts, Narayan Guru significantly transformed the untouchable groups in Kerala into a recognized backward class.
• Narayan Guru openly criticized the Congress party and Mahatma Gandhi for their lack of genuine support towards the lower castes. He particularly disapproved of Gandhi's belief in Chaturvarna, which he argued was the root cause of the caste system and untouchability. Narayan Guru emphasized that the differences between castes were superficial, pointing out that the essence of all leaves from a single tree remains the same. He promoted the idea of "One religion, one caste, and one God for mankind" as a means to unify people and eliminate caste-based discrimination.

Ramkrishna Mission 

The Brahmo Samaj's didactic rationalism appealed more to Bengal's intellectual elite, while the average Bengali found greater emotional satisfaction in the Bhakti and yoga cults. Amidst increasing Westernization and modernization, the teachings of the Ramakrishna Mission are rooted in ancient and traditional concepts. Founded by Swami Vivekananda in 1897, eleven years after the death of Ramakrishna, the mission was inspired by the latter's teachings.

• Ramakrishna Paramhansa (1834-86), a poor priest at the Kali temple in Dakshineswar near Calcutta, was deeply rooted in Indian thought and culture. He believed that Krishna, Hari, Rama, Christ, and Allah were different names for the same God. Unlike the Arya Samaj, the Ramakrishna Mission recognized the importance and value of image worship in fostering spiritual fervor and worship of the Eternal Omnipotent God. However, Ramakrishna emphasized the essential spirit, not the symbols or rituals, and promoted selfless devotion to God, ultimately leading to absorption in Him. His spirituality and compassion for suffering humanity inspired many who heard his teachings.
• Swami Vivekananda (Narendranath Datta, 1862-1902) interpreted Ramakrishna's teachings and made them accessible to modern audiences. As a preacher of neo-Hinduism, he attended the Parliament of Religions held in Chicago in 1893, impressing audiences with his learned interpretations. His opening address emphasized the need for a balance between spiritualism and materialism, envisioning a new global culture where the West's materialism and the East's spiritualism would harmoniously blend, leading to happiness for all.
• Vivekananda denounced untouchability and the caste system, condemning the "touch-me-not" attitude of Hindus in religious matters. He lamented that Hinduism had been confined to the kitchen and disapproved of religion's tacit support for the rich's oppression of the poor. He believed that teaching religion to a starving person was an insult to God and humanity. Vivekananda stressed the importance of serving humanity as the best form of worship, giving Hinduism a new social purpose.

Since its inception, the Ramakrishna Mission has been at the forefront of social reform in India. It operates several charitable dispensaries and hospitals, providing aid during natural disasters such as famines, floods, and epidemics. Although Vivekananda did not convey a political message, his speeches and writings instilled a sense of pride in India's past, faith in its culture, and self-confidence in its future. He was a patriot who worked for the upliftment of the people. Subhash Bose regarded Vivekananda as the spiritual father of Bengal's modern nationalist movement.

The Theosophical Movement
The Theosophical Movement, founded by westerners inspired by Indian thought and culture, began in the United States in 1875 under the guidance of Madame H. P. Blavatsky, a Russo-German woman. Colonel M.S. Olcott, a member of the U.S. army, later joined her, and in 1882, they relocated their headquarters to Adyar, an area near Madras, India. Theosophy, the belief system of the society, posits that individuals can establish a special connection between their soul and God through contemplation, prayer, and revelation. The movement embraces Hindu concepts like reincarnation, karma, and the philosophies of the Upanishads, Samkhya, Yoga, and Vedanta schools.

• The Theosophical Society aims to promote universal brotherhood among humanity, regardless of race, creed, gender, caste, or color. It also seeks to explore the unexplained laws of nature and the latent powers within humans. In India, the movement gained popularity after the election of Mrs. Annie Besant as its president following Olcott's death in 1907. Besant, a British woman who had lost faith in Christianity and divorced her clergyman husband, joined the society in 1882. She became familiar with Indian thought and culture, and her translation of the Bhagavad Gita reflected her Vedantic approach.
• Under Besant's leadership, theosophy in India transformed into a movement for Hindu revival. She believed that the revitalization and strengthening of ancient religions would lead to a renewed sense of self-respect and national pride among Indians. In 1898, Besant founded the Central Hindu College in Benares, which combined Hindu religious teachings with Western scientific subjects. This institution later became the foundation for the Benares Hindu University in 1916. Besant also advocated for female education and established the Home Rule League, modeled after the Irish Home Rule movement.
• While the Theosophical Society provided a shared platform for various religious sects and fulfilled the desires of educated Hindus, its philosophy appeared vague and lacking a clear program for the average Indian. As a result, the movement's influence was primarily limited to a small segment of the Western-educated class.

Muslim Reform Movements

The initial reaction of the Muslim community to Western influences was to isolate themselves and resist any impact from the West. The first significant organized Muslim response to these influences emerged in the form of the Wahabi movement, also known as the Walliullah Movement. This movement primarily aimed to revive the original principles of Islam and address the degeneration that had occurred among Indian Muslims.

• Shah Walliullah (1702-1762) was the foremost Indian Muslim leader of the 18th century who expressed concern about the decline of the Muslim community in India. He was particularly distressed by the deviations from the original teachings of Islam. Walliullah's contributions to the Muslim reform movement were twofold: firstly, he advocated for harmony among the four schools of Muslim jurisprudence that had divided Indian Muslims, aiming to integrate the best elements from each; secondly, he emphasized the importance of individual conscience in religious matters, arguing that individuals can make decisions based on their judgment and conscience when the Quran and Hadith were subject to conflicting interpretations.
• Shah Abdul Aziz and Syed Ahmed Barelvi further popularized Walliullah's teachings and added a political dimension to the movement. They sought to establish a homeland for Muslims, starting with a fatwa (ruling) given by Abdul Aziz that declared India as dar-ul-harb (land of non-believers) and the need to transform it into dar-ul-Islam. Initially, the movement targeted the Sikhs in Punjab. After the British annexed the region in 1849, the movement shifted its focus against the British. However, the British military eventually crushed the movement in the 1870s.

The Aligarh Movement

The Aligarh Movement was a response to the perception that Muslims were the main conspirators in the Revolt of 1857. This perception was further reinforced by the Wahabi political activities of the 1860s and 1870s. However, a shift in attitude emerged in the 1870s, as W.W. Hunter's book, The Indian Musalman, advocated for the reconciliation and rallying of Muslims around the British government through thoughtful concessions. A section of the Muslim community, led by Syed Ahmed Khan, was ready to accept this stance of official patronage. These Muslims believed that the Muslim community would lose its rightful share in administrative services if they isolated themselves and resisted modern ideas.

• Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-98) was a prominent Muslim reformer of the nineteenth century. Born in Delhi in 1817 to a respectable Muslim family, he received education in the traditional Muslim style. He served in the judicial services of the company during the Rebellion of 1857 and remained loyal to the government. He retired from service in 1876 and became a member of the Imperial Legislative Council in 1878. His loyalty earned him a knighthood in 1888. Syed Ahmed worked to modernize the Muslim community's outlook, encouraging them to embrace modern scientific thought, British rule, and government service.
• Today, Aligarh Muslim University is ranked among the top Indian universities. Sir Syed also sought to reform social abuses within the Muslim community, condemning the system of piri and muridi, where pirs and faqirs claimed to be followers of the Sufi school and passed mystic words to their disciples (murids). He also denounced the institution of slavery, describing it as un-Islamic. His progressive social ideas were disseminated through his magazine, Tahdhib-ul-Akhlaq (Improvement of Manners and Morals).
• In his influential work, Commentaries on the Quran, Sir Syed criticized the narrow outlook of traditional interpreters and offered his own views in light of contemporary rationalism and scientific knowledge. He emphasized the study of the Quran, stating that the word of God should be interpreted by the work of God, which is open for all to see.

In terms of education, Sir Syed founded the M.A.O College at Aligarh in 1875, where students received instruction in both Western arts and sciences as well as the Muslim religion. Aligarh soon became the center of religious and cultural revival for the Muslim community. The school eventually became the basis for the formation of the Muslim University in 1920.

The Deoband School

The Deoband School was established in 1866 in the Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh, India, by Muslim Ulema leaders Muhammad Qasim Wanotavi and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi. This orthodox institution sought to propagate the pure teachings of the Koran and the Hadith among Muslims and maintain the spirit of jihad against foreign rulers. Its primary objective was to train religious leaders for the Muslim community, focusing on the original Islamic religion and the moral and religious regeneration of the Muslim community.

• Unlike the Aligarh movement, which aimed to improve the welfare of the Muslim community through Western education and support from the British government, the Deoband School did not prepare its students for government jobs or worldly careers, but rather for the preaching of Islamic faith. As a result, the school's curriculum excluded English education and Western culture. The Deoband School attracted students from all over India and neighboring Muslim countries due to its religious instruction.
• In terms of politics, the Deoband School supported the formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885. In 1888, the Deoband Ulema issued a religious decree (fatwa) against Syed Ahmed Khan's organizations, the United Patriotic Association and The Muhammaden Anglo-Oriental Association. Critics argue that the Deoband Ulemas' stance was not based on any positive political philosophy or opposition to the British government, but rather on their determination to oppose Sir Syed Ahmed's activities.
• Mahmad-u Husan, the new Deoband leader, aimed to provide a political and intellectual dimension to the school's religious teachings. He developed a synthesis of Islamic principles and national aspirations, with the Jamiat-ul-Ulema giving concrete form to Hasan's ideas of protecting the religious and political rights of Muslims within the broader context of Indian unity and national objectives.

Sikh Reform Movements

• The Sikh community in the 19th century was influenced by the rationalist and progressive ideas of the time. In response, the Singh Sabha movement was founded in Amritsar in 1873 with two main objectives. Firstly, it aimed to introduce the Sikh community to the benefits of Western enlightenment through modern education. Secondly, it sought to counter the proselytizing activities of Christian missionaries and Hindu revivalists. To achieve these goals, the Sabha established a network of Khalsa schools and colleges throughout Punjab.
• The Akali movement emerged as a subsidiary of the Singh Sabha movement, and its primary objective was to free Sikh Gurudwaras from the control of corrupt mahants (priests) who were supported by the government. In 1921, the Akalis initiated a non-violent, non-cooperation Satyagrah movement against the mahants. Despite the government's repressive measures, it eventually succumbed to public opinion and passed the Sikh Gurudwaras Act in 1922, which was later amended in 1925.
• Although the Akali movement was a sectarian and regional movement, it was not communal. Akali leaders significantly contributed to the national liberation struggle, even though there were occasional dissenting voices.

Parsi Reform Movement

The Parsi community in India was significaantly influenced by the various changes occurring throughout the country. In 1851, a group of English-educated Parsis established the Rehnumai Mazdeyasan Sabha, also known as the Religious Reform Association, with the aim of revitalizing the social status of the Parsi community and restoring the Zoroastrian religion to its original purity. Prominent figures like Naoroji Furdunji, Dadabhai Naoroji, and K.R. Cama led this movement.

• The Association used the newspaper Rast-Goftar (Truth-Teller) to promote its message and advocate for reforms within the Parsi community. As a result, religious rituals and practices were reformed, and the Parsi belief system was redefined.
• In terms of social reform, the movement focused on improving the status of Parsi women within society. Efforts were made to abolish the pardah system, increase the legal age of marriage, and promote the education of women. Over time, these reforms led to the Parsi community becoming one of the most westernized sections of Indian society.

Conclusion

The colonial period in India witnessed numerous social reform movements that aimed to revitalize and modernize various religious communities. These movements, such as the Bhakti movement, Arya Samaj, Satya Shodhak Samaj, SNDP, Ramkrishna Mission, Theosophical Movement, Aligarh Movement, Deoband School, Sikh Reform Movements, and the Parsi Reform Movement, sought to address social, religious, and political issues within their respective communities. These reformers embraced modernity and rational thinking, while also preserving and promoting the values of traditional Indian culture. Their collective efforts contributed to the socio-cultural regeneration of India and laid the foundation for the emergence of a modern, progressive, and pluralistic Indian society.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Social Reforms Movements During Colonial Period

What were the primary objectives of the Bhakti movement in India during the medieval period?

The Bhakti movement emphasized the importance of love for God as the central aspect of religion while protesting against ritualism and caste barriers. Its main objective was to reform people's worldviews and social practices without seeking to radically transform the social system.

How did the Arya Samaj movement contribute to social reform and education in India?

The Arya Samaj movement promoted the well-being of the world, material, spiritual, and social, and emphasized education and rational thinking. It also played a crucial role in protecting Hindu society from the onslaught of Islam and Christianity and promoting patriotism.

What were the main goals of the Satya Shodhak Samaj founded by Jyothirao Phule?

The Satya Shodhak Samaj aimed to promote social justice for marginalized communities in India. Jyothiba Phule established several schools and orphanages for children and women from all castes to help uplift these communities.

How did the Ramakrishna Mission contribute to social reform in India?

The Ramakrishna Mission has been at the forefront of social reform in India, operating several charitable dispensaries and hospitals, providing aid during natural disasters, and promoting the education of women. It also sought to serve humanity as the best form of worship, giving Hinduism a new social purpose.

What were the main objectives of the Aligarh Movement led by Syed Ahmed Khan?

The Aligarh Movement aimed to modernize the Muslim community's outlook, encouraging them to embrace modern scientific thought, British rule, and government service. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan also sought to reform social abuses within the Muslim community and promote education through the establishment of the M.A.O College at Aligarh (later Aligarh Muslim University).