Nation, State, Democracy & Citizenship | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

State and Nation

State is the fundamental unit of political science and can be seen as a politically organized body of people with a defined territory and government. The state exercises power and authority, ensuring order and governance within its territory. Here’s a closer look at the key aspects of the state:

Definition of State

• Aristotle’s Definition: Aristotle viewed the state as a union of families and villages aimed at achieving a perfect and self-sufficient life, which implies a happy and honorable existence.
• MacIver’s Definition: According to MacIver, the state is an association that, through law enforced by the government, maintains social order within a territorially demarcated community. The state is characterized by a group of people permanently settled in a specific territory, governed by their own authority, free from external control, and possessing sovereign power over their affairs.

Key Elements of the State

• Territory: A defined geographical area where the state exercises its authority.
• Population: The inhabitants of the state who are subject to its governance.
• Government: The institution through which the state exercises its power and authority.
• Sovereignty: The ultimate authority of the state to govern itself without external interference.

Functions of the State

• Legislative: Making laws to govern the society.
• Judicial: Interpreting and enforcing laws to ensure justice.
• Executive: Implementing laws and policies.
• Military: Protecting the state from external threats.
• Planning: Developing strategies for social and economic development.

Theoretical Perspectives on the State

Karl Marx’s View of the State

• For Marx, the state is a tool of force that serves the interests of the dominant class and suppresses the weaker classes, collectively known as the proletariat in a capitalist society.
• In Marxist theory, economic activity is central to understanding society. The way a society organizes its production is key to understanding its social structure.
• Except for the primitive communist and communist modes of production, every mode of production shares a crucial characteristic: those who own the means of production control the state.
• When there is a change in the mode of production, the government, as the physical embodiment of the state, also changes.
• Marx’s view of the state is primarily based on capitalist society. He saw the state as a conspiracy against the working class, where the wealth of the bourgeoisie ensures that those in power pursue its interests.

Max Weber’s Perspective on the State

• In his work "Politics as a Vocation," Weber described the state as a community or a special institution that claims the monopoly of legitimate use of physical force within a given territory.
• Weber emphasized that the state not only has the capacity to enforce obedience but also the acknowledged right to do so. This monopoly of legitimate violence is a practical expression of state sovereignty.
• He viewed the state as the most powerful institution in modern society, having legitimate monopoly of force over its territory.

Characteristics of the Modern State

1. Legal and Administrative Order

• The modern state has a legal and administrative order that can only be changed through legislation. The administration operates in accordance with this legislation, meaning that civil servants and the judiciary do not create their own rules but follow those established by the legislature.

2. Binding Authority

• The state possesses binding authority over all its members and the actions carried out within its territory.

3. Membership by Birth

• Membership in the state is typically granted by birth.

4. Use of Force

• The state has the legal right to use force when prescribed and permitted by law.

Weber's Concept of Political Society

• Max Weber defines a political society as one whose existence and order are continuously safeguarded within a specific territorial area through the threat and application of physical force by the administrative staff.
• A political society evolves into a state when it successfully establishes a legitimate monopoly over the organized use of force within its territory.

Weber's Opposition to Marx's Economic Determinism

• Weber opposed Marx's view that economic factors are the sole determinants of social and political structures.
• According to Weber, the legitimacy of the modern state depends on the belief of the people in its legitimacy, not merely on economic conditions.

Bureaucracy and the Modern State

• Weber viewed bureaucracy as the organizational apparatus of the modern state. He argued that the modern capitalist state relies entirely on bureaucratic organization for its survival and functionality.
• Weber emphasized that the emergence of the modern state was driven by the development of expert officialdom and a specialization-based division of labor, which became separate from the ownership of the means of administration.
• This growth of the modern-rational state, characterized by its bureaucratic officials, was not entirely a result of economic rationalization. Instead, it preceded the development of capitalism and created conditions that facilitated its rise.

Rationalization and Bureaucracy

• Weber argued that while rationalization is evident in various aspects of society, such as economic and cultural life, it is most fundamentally reflected in modern administrative institutions, particularly bureaucracy.

Emile Durkheim on the State

1. Nature and Features of the State

• Emile Durkheim, in his work "Professional Ethics and Civic Morals," explores the nature and features of the state. He emphasizes the centrality of the opposition between the governing and the governed in political life.
• Durkheim's views on the state are closely linked to his explanation of the division of labor and types of solidarity. He argues that the division of labor in society leads to the distinction between governing and governed, ultimately resulting in the formation of the state.

2. Division of Labor and State Formation

• According to Durkheim, primitive societies lacked politics or a state because there was little division of labor and no clear distinction between governing and governed. As societies became more complex, the division of labor necessitated the differentiation between these roles, paving the way for the emergence of the state.

3. Control of Secondary Social Groupings

• Durkheim argues that the state does not necessarily control large numbers of people but rather governs various secondary social groupings. The state is essentially an organization of officials tasked with managing these secondary groups.

4. Relationship Between State and Individual

• In societies dominated by mechanical solidarity, the relationship between the state and the individual is not a significant issue. However, as societies evolve and become more complex, individuals need the ability to move between different groups, and the state plays a role in preventing secondary groups from exercising despotic control over their members.

5. Distinction Between Society and State

• Durkheim makes a clear distinction between society and the state. He views society as dynamic and existing over and above the individual, exerting immense power over its members. This notion of society, which he refers to as "sui generis," reflects his understanding of the state as well.
• In Durkheim's perspective, society dominates everything else, and the state is an extension of this societal dominance, governing individuals and secondary groups in a complex social landscape.

The Nation

Definition of Nation

• A nation is a group of people who are closely connected by factors like race, language, religion, culture, geographical location, and share similar political goals and historical experiences. The emotional bond to this group is called nationality.

Narrow Definition Issues

• A narrow definition can lead to divisions within a state, causing conflicts and separatist movements, as seen in India with demands for Khalistan, Kashmir, and autonomy for North-East states.
• This issue is not unique to India but is seen worldwide.

Symbols for Unity

• To foster a sense of uniformity and develop a common nationality, symbols like the national emblem, anthem, language, game, and animal are used to promote a single culture within the state.

Factors Responsible for the Emergence of a Nation

Race and Kinship

• While racial and kinship unity can strengthen bonds among people, it is not an essential factor for the emergence of a nation.

Community of Religion

• Religious unity has historically been a strong force in consolidating nations.
• Modern nations are territorial communities that include all individuals of various ethnic and religious backgrounds living permanently in the same territory, sharing in the history and traditions of the land.

Common History or Traditions

• Shared language, geographical proximity, and economic connections create common experiences, outlooks, and aspirations among people living together.

Community of Economic Ties

• Emphasized by Karl Marx, economic ties are crucial for the formation of nations.
• Nations as territorial communities could not exist in ancient times or during periods of slavery and feudalism.

Nation-State Concept

• In modern society, separating the concepts of nation and state leads to misunderstandings.
• The integration of these concepts helps in understanding the nation-state, where a nation organizes itself into a political body, either independent or aspiring for independence.

Nation-State

• A nation is a group of people who feel a strong sense of uniqueness and unity, and they organize themselves into a political body, either independent or seeking independence. A state is a territorially organized group of people. When a nation organizes itself on a specific territory and desires independence or is already independent, it forms a nation-state.
• Within a state, the members may belong to different nationalities.
• Nationality is subjective and psychological, while statehood is objective and political.
• Nationality is a state of mind, whereas statehood is a legal condition.
• Nationality is a spiritual possession, while statehood is an enforceable obligation.
• Sovereignty is a crucial aspect of statehood but not of nationhood.
• Nation represents a consciousness of unity driven by psychological and spiritual feelings, which may or may not involve sovereignty. The psychological sense of oneness is more important than the physical aspect of sovereignty.

Citizenship

• The state is established to ensure the well-being of individuals. In contemporary times, the members of a state are referred to as its citizens. The term 'citizenship' originally meant residing in a city-state, with a 'citizen' being someone who lives in a city. However, its meaning has evolved significantly.
• Citizenship goes beyond merely enjoying certain rights and guarantees; it also involves fulfilling one's obligations diligently. It reflects a commitment to contributing to society's welfare through active participation in public affairs aimed at enhancing the cultural, political, and material aspects of social life.

Who is a Citizen?

• A citizen is defined as a person who enjoys rights and fulfills duties within a state. Not everyone living in India is an Indian citizen, as there are also aliens residing in the country. Therefore, not every inhabitant is a citizen.
• A citizen is a member of the state who actively participates in the process of government. In a democratic society, there must be a reciprocal relationship between citizens and the government. All governments require certain duties to be performed by their citizens, and citizens are expected to observe these duties. Conversely, the state must also acknowledge some demands from its citizens.

Subjects in Non-Democratic States

• In non-democratic states, people often lack political rights and are expected to fulfill their duties, such as paying taxes and obeying laws, without having the ability to question state actions. 
• In such societies, politics operates like a one-way street, where the government dictates what the people must do without listening to their concerns. 
• Only the rulers possess rights, while the ruled have none, making them subjects rather than citizens.

Democracy and Citizenship

• The concepts of citizenship and democracy did not develop overnight; they evolved gradually over time. Universal suffrage, where everyone has the right to vote, is a relatively recent achievement. The ideals of democracy inspired people to fight for their rights against monarchies.
• Today, individuals in democratic societies are commonly regarded as 'citizens,' which implies that they are active participants in the governance process. In a democratic state, citizens have the right to express their opinions freely, to be consulted, and to be involved in the country's political affairs.
• The quality of citizenship is crucial for the functioning of a democratic state. If citizens show disinterest in politics, the democratic nature of the state may deteriorate over time. Conversely, democracy can be strengthened when citizens are aware of their own rights, the rights of others, and the obligations of both citizens and the government.
• Many social issues cannot be resolved solely by the government enacting laws against them. There is a need to foster a strong social consensus among citizens against such social evils. After all, society is shaped by its people, not just by laws.
• A good citizen in a democracy is one who is aware of both their rights and duties. For instance, exercising the right to vote is not only an important right but also a duty. A person who fails to vote cannot be considered a good citizen, even if they are a good individual in other respects.
• Moreover, good citizens should not only be mindful of their own rights but also fulfill their obligations to the government. This includes obeying laws enacted by the legislature and paying taxes.

Citizenship: A Historical Perspective

British sociologist T.H. Marshall was the first to extensively discuss citizenship, emphasizing the role of class struggle in modern states, drawing on the ideas of Marx and Weber. Marshall argued that capitalism has heightened class struggle in contemporary societies. In his seminal essay "Citizenship and Social Class," published in 1950, Marshall analyzed the evolution of citizenship through the development of civil, political, and social rights, which were broadly associated with the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries, respectively.
Marshall's key contribution was the introduction of social rights, understood as welfare rights, which are granted based on citizenship status rather than class or need. He argued that the expansion of social rights does not eliminate social classes or inequalities.
In Britain, citizenship evolved through three stages:

• Urban Citizenship (Civil) – 18th Century: In this phase, individuals gained equality before the law, individual freedoms, rights to speech and religion, and the right to property and contracts.
• Political Citizenship - 19th Century: This period marked the right to vote and to be voted into office.
• Social Citizenship - 20th Century: Social citizenship involved the complete participation of individuals in the state.

Critics of Marshall's model argue that it merely describes British experiences and neglects the concept of economic citizenship. Marxist critics contend that Marshall's analysis is superficial as it does not address the citizen's right to control economic production, which they believe is essential for shared prosperity. From a feminist perspective, Marshall's work is criticized for focusing on men's experiences and overlooking the social rights of women and the challenges to their realization.
There is ongoing debate among scholars about whether Marshall intended his historical analysis to serve as a general theory of citizenship or if it was simply a commentary on developments within England.

• Global Citizenship: Citizenship provides an identity that can sometimes lead to negative phenomena like regionalism and communalism. Global citizenship, however, has the potential to mitigate these issues. Globalization is fostering cultural uniformity worldwide, which may contribute to diminishing the significance of identity tied to soil and blood.
• Dual Citizenship: Efforts to preserve one's cultural identity in the context of dual citizenship can often reflect narrow-mindedness. In many cases, dual citizenship is pursued for material benefits and conveniences, rather than a genuine attachment to the land. Nevertheless, it can serve to strengthen relations between two countries.

Citizenship: Rights and Duties

• Harold J. Laski argues that a state is recognized by its rights and is not only a sovereign institution responsible for maintaining discipline among citizens but also possesses additional powers and moral obligations.
• Citizens have certain responsibilities towards the state, such as obeying laws and paying taxes, while the state also has responsibilities towards its citizens, including providing opportunities necessary for their physical, mental, and moral development. This relationship is reciprocal and is essential for the development and maintenance of a healthy and balanced society.

Democracy

Participatory Democracy

• Definition: Participatory democracy, also known as direct democracy, is a system where decisions are made collectively by those affected by them.
• Historical Context: This form of democracy was prevalent in ancient Greece, where a small group of citizens would gather to discuss and decide on policies.
• Modern Examples: While rare today, elements of participatory democracy can be seen in practices like town meetings in small communities and referenda where the public votes on specific issues.
• Limitations: In large, modern societies, it is impractical for everyone to participate in every decision-making process.

Representative Democracy

• Definition: In representative democracy, decisions are made by elected officials on behalf of the people. This system is more practical for larger populations.
• Forms: Representative democracy can occur at various levels, including national, state, and local governments.
• Liberal Democracies: Countries where voters can choose between multiple parties and the majority of the adult population has the right to vote are often called liberal democracies. Examples include the USA, UK, and many Western European countries.

Classical Notion of Democracy

• Historical Perspective: The concept of democracy has evolved over time, with early thinkers like Plato and Aristotle observing its practice in ancient Greek city-states, particularly Athens.
• Key Features: Democracy was characterized by equal participation of all freemen in public affairs, decision-making through open discussion, and respect for law and established procedures.
• Cultural Pride: The Greeks took pride in their customary law, which they believed was superior to the arbitrary rule seen in non-Greek societies.

Concept of Liberal Democracy

• Government by Consent: Liberal democracy is based on the consent of the people, achieved through free discussion and debate. While it's impractical to consult the public on every detail, broad issues must be discussed at both legislative and public levels.
• Public Accountability: Governments are seen as trustees of the power given to them by the people. This concept, supported by thinkers like John Locke, emphasizes the need for constant vigilance to prevent abuses of power.
• Majority Rule: Decisions in modern democracies are made by majority vote in various bodies. "One man, one vote" ensures political equality without discrimination based on religion, race, or other factors.
• Minority Rights: Legal safeguards are necessary to protect minorities from discrimination or persecution, ensuring a favorable climate for democratic politics.
• Constitutional Government: Democracy is governed by laws rather than individuals. A well-established tradition of law and constitution is essential for stability and to prevent corruption.

Conditions for Successful Democracy

• National Sentiment: A sense of national homogeneity can be beneficial for democracy, though it is not strictly necessary as seen in diverse states.
• Spirit of Toleration: Democracy thrives on the spirit of toleration, allowing different groups to coexist and encouraging persuasion over force.
• High Moral Character: The moral character of both leaders and citizens is crucial. Opportunism and self-interest can lead to demagoguery, while morality fosters active problem-solving.
• Widespread Education: An educated electorate is vital for democracy. Literacy and education enable citizens to make informed judgments and utilize communication channels effectively.
• Economic Security and Equality: Economic security and equality are fundamental for maintaining faith in democracy. Vast economic disparities can undermine individuals' sense of equal dignity.

Institutional Guarantees

• Freedom of Association and Expression: Ensuring individuals can freely associate and express themselves is crucial for democracy.
• The Right to Vote: Universal suffrage is fundamental, allowing all eligible citizens to participate in elections.
• Free and Fair Elections: Elections must be conducted impartially to ensure genuine competition and representation.
• Alternative Sources of Information: Access to diverse information sources is essential for informed decision-making.
• Policy-Making Institutions: Institutions responsible for policy-making should be accountable to the electorate.
• Other Expressions of Preference: Various means for expressing preferences should be available to citizens.