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The Green Revolution and its Impact on Indian Agriculture

The Green Revolution refers to the fundamental change and phenomenal increase in food grain production in India during the late 1960s. This revolution was characterized by the adoption of modern farming techniques, including the use of high-yielding varieties of seeds, fertilizers, and assured irrigation facilities. As a result, India transformed from a food deficit country to a food surplus country, achieving self-sufficiency in food grains.

Causes of Food Grain Shortage in India
The shortage of food grains in India was mainly caused by low productivity of land, overdependence on monsoon, and the outdated agrarian structure. To address this issue, various schemes were implemented under the Five-Year Plans, land reforms, and commodity development programs. However, these efforts could not initially succeed in increasing agricultural production. Consequently, a new agricultural strategy was adopted in the early sixties to accelerate the process of agricultural development.

New Agricultural Strategy

• The new agricultural strategy aimed at intensive application of science and technology in agriculture, which would result in a massive increase in food grain production. Various programs were undertaken in this regard, such as the Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP), Intensive Agricultural Areas Programme (IAAP), High Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP), Small Farm Development Agencies (SFDA), and the Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers Development Scheme (MFALDS). 
• These schemes were supplemented by the assured supply of inputs like fertilizers, institutional credit, and increased irrigation facilities.

Impact of the Green Revolution
The Green Revolution had a significant impact on Indian agriculture. The production of food grains, particularly wheat and rice, increased remarkably. The progressive increase in food grain production also started including other crops like maize, jowar, and bajra, although at a slower pace. The revolution initially began with wheat but was soon surpassed by rice production. As a result, India became not only self-sufficient in food grains but also started exporting them.

Socioeconomic Consequences of Green Revolution

The Green Revolution has brought about significant improvements in food security, hunger alleviation, and economic growth in India. It has also changed the mindset of farmers, proving their ability to adapt to technological innovations and handle social arrangements effectively. However, the impact of the Green Revolution has not been uniformly positive for all sections of the agrarian population. This analysis aims to explore the various consequences of the Green Revolution and its implications for different groups within the agrarian sector.

• Unequal Access to Technology and Resources: The new technology and inputs such as improved seeds, fertilisers, pesticides, and water are often beyond the reach of small and marginal farmers. Consequently, regions with larger landholdings, such as Punjab, have outperformed others like Bihar and Orissa, where marginal and poor farmers are more abundant and institutional credit is less accessible. This has led to a widening gap between small and wealthy farmers.
• Declining Real Wages for Agricultural Labourers: While affluent farmers enjoy the benefits of increased profits from land, the real wage rate for agricultural labourers has been declining in most places. Many sharecroppers are now joining the ranks of landless labourers as small holdings are no longer available for leasing out to them.
• Increased Economic Inequality and Agrarian Unrest: The Green Revolution has resulted in widened economic inequality in the agrarian sector, leading to increased agrarian unrest in rural areas. Numerous cases of conflict were reported during the late sixties and early seventies, particularly from the Green Revolution belts. The Ministry of Home Affairs of the Government of India studied the causes and nature of agrarian tensions and acknowledged the sociopolitical implications of the new agricultural strategy.
• Limited Benefits for Poor Farmers, Sharecroppers, and Landless Labourers: The Green Revolution has not led to substantial welfare improvements for poor farmers, sharecroppers, and landless agricultural labourers. T.K. Oommen argues that the Green Revolution does not automatically lead to the welfare of the agrarian poor unless significant alterations are made to the existing socioeconomic and political structures at the grassroots level.
• Regional Disparities in Agricultural Growth: Increased agricultural production has been primarily observed in areas like Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra, leaving substantial areas of the country untouched by the agricultural transformation. This has led to the emergence of a new class of capitalist farmers in the Green Revolution belt.
• Disproportionate Social Index Growth: Although agricultural production has increased, the social index has not changed proportionately. For example, the gender ratio in areas where agricultural prosperity has been achieved remains skewed. This suggests that while the Green Revolution has paved the way for faster economic growth, corresponding social change has not been as forthcoming.

Changing Modes of Production in Indian Agriculture

The Indian agricultural landscape has undergone significant transformations in recent years. These changes have given rise to new groups and classes within the agricultural sector. This article discusses the emergence of Gentleman Farmers, Capitalist Farmers, and Dominant Middle Caste Peasantry, exploring their roles in the changing modes of production in Indian agriculture.

1. Gentleman Farmers: The traditional landowning class in India has evolved, with a new class of farmers emerging. These individuals, referred to as "Gentleman Farmers," do not necessarily belong to the traditional landowning upper castes. Instead, they may be people who have retired from civil or military service and have invested their savings in agricultural farms. The increased profitability of agriculture has attracted educated individuals to make it their vocation.
   Gentleman Farms are run like business firms, incorporating modern organizational features. This marks a significant departure from the traditional agricultural system, as these farms are managed by individuals with diverse skills and experience.
2. Capitalist Farmers: Another important development in Indian agriculture is the emergence of capitalist farmers. The debate on the extent of capitalism's penetration in Indian agriculture is ongoing; however, the trend suggests an infusion of capital in the sector. The traditional land relations have been replaced by a capitalist form of wage labor agrarian system, transitioning from peasant family farms to commercial capitalist farms.
   • The introduction of new technology, land reforms, and various agricultural development schemes have allowed a small section of rich peasantry to emerge as powerful commercial and capitalist farmers. These farmers take advantage of resources, such as high-yielding seeds, fertilizers, improved implements, irrigation, credit facilities, and better transport and communication.
   • Capitalist farmers hire wage laborers for their agricultural needs, focusing on profit generation. Although the size of the capitalist farmer class is small, its emergence highlights a significant change in the agrarian social structure. This development has increased agricultural productivity and efficiency, contributed to industrial growth, but has also widened the gap between rich and poor farmers, leading to unrest in rural areas.
3. Dominant Middle Caste Peasantry: The land reforms and Green Revolution have had varying impacts across the country. In certain regions, some sections have benefited more than others, with middle peasants being the main beneficiaries. Middle peasants generally belong to middle caste groups, which hold higher positions in the local caste hierarchy and traditionally have been self-cultivating owners of medium-sized landholdings.
   • Middle castes have emerged as dominant middle peasantry due to several factors, such as land transfers during the abolition of intermediaries, purchasing land from upper castes migrating to urban areas, and benefiting from new agricultural development programs. Their peasant background provides them with an added advantage, resulting in rapid economic growth.
   • The economic prosperity of middle castes has also extended to political influence. Their numerical strength has contributed to gaining political dominance. The rise of castes such as Yadav (Ahir), Kurmi in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, Vokkaliga in Karnataka, Kamma, and Reddy in Andhra Pradesh exemplifies this trend. The emergence of dominant middle caste peasants reflects the changing reality of the Indian countryside.

Problems Of Rural Labour, Bondage and Migration 

The problem of bonded labour is a significant socioeconomic issue in India. This practice has existed in the country for centuries and is a relic of the feudal hierarchical society. The magnitude of the problem is distressing as lakhs of people, including men, women, and children, are condemned to servitude under its yoke. This article discusses the definition, main features, extent, and causes of bonded labour in India.
Definition of Bonded Labour:

• National Commission on Labour: Bonded labour is defined as labour that remains in bondage for a specific period due to debt incurred.
• Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes: Bonded labour refers to persons who are forced to work for their creditors due to a loan incurred, either without wage or for nominal wages.
•  Bonded Labour Abolition Act, 1976: Bonded labour is the system of forced labour under which a debtor enters into an agreement with the creditor to render service, either without wages or for nominal wages, in consideration of loan or any other economic consideration obtained.

Different Names of Bonded Labourers: Bonded labourers are known by various names in different parts of India. Some examples are Jeethadalu in Karnataka, Jeethams in Andhra Pradesh, Pandiyals in Tamil Nadu, Adiyas and Kattunaikens in Kerala, Koltas, Sevaks, and Haris in Uttar Pradesh, Halis in Gujarat, Harwabas and Halis in Madhya Pradesh, Kamias or Kamiantis in Bihar, and Gothees in Orissa.

Main Features of Bonded Labour:

• Indebtedness: Poor economic conditions of rural people, especially those belonging to the lowest castes, force them to borrow money from landlords or moneylenders. Their inability to pay back the borrowed money compels them to work for their creditors for a certain number of years at fixed or unfixed wages to repay the debt.
• Forced Labour: Bonded labourers are sometimes forced to work throughout their lives or even for generations. Forced labour can be hereditary and passed down for generations.

Extent of Bonded Labour:
There are no reliable statistics on the extent of bonded labour in India. However, some estimates include:

• Gandhi Peace Foundation and National Labour Institute's 1978-79 survey: Estimated 26.17 lakhs bonded labourers in ten major states of India.
• State governments' 1990 estimate: Estimated 2.45 lakhs bonded labourers in twelve states.
• International Labour Organisation: Estimated 150 lakhs bonded labourers in India, with 50 lakhs being children.

Causes of Bonded Labour:

• Economic Causes: Factors such as extreme poverty, heightened unemployment, lack of alternative small-scale loans, natural calamities, soaring prices and inflation, and the government's inability to rehabilitate the poor contribute to the problem of bonded labour.
• Social Causes: Social practices, customs, and beliefs, such as casteism, caste-based discrimination, high expenses on life events, lack of comprehensive social security measures, non-compulsory and unequal education system, corruption in governmental machinery, and the indifferent attitude of bureaucrats contribute to the problem of bonded labour.
• Religious Causes: Illiterate and religious-minded lower-caste people are often made to believe they have a religious obligation to serve higher-caste people, leading to the acceptance of bonded labour.

Misery and Sufferings of the Bonded Labour

Bonded labour is a form of modern-day slavery that has persisted in India for several centuries. It primarily affects the most vulnerable and marginalized sections of society, such as the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and semi-tribal people, who depend on wage income for their livelihood. The system perpetuates itself through a vicious cycle of debt, low wages, and high-interest rates, trapping entire generations in perpetual servitude.

• The Plight of Bonded Labourers: The majority of bonded labourers work as agricultural labourers in rural areas and belong to outcaste or tribal communities. They are often unskilled and unorganized, forced to sell their labour for their livelihood. Bonded labourers live in pitiable and miserable conditions, socially exploited, and made to work for long hours with minimal remuneration. They often live in sheds with animals and have limited access to healthcare, relying on the mercy of their employers for even basic necessities.
• Abolition of Bonded Labour: The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act of 1976 was enacted to eradicate this exploitative practice in India. The government took swift action against moneylenders, building contractors, quarry owners, and others found to be engaging in bonded or contract labour. Additionally, measures were put in place to rehabilitate freed bonded labourers.
• Rehabilitation of Bonded Labourers: During the Sixth Plan (1980-85), the maximum cost of rehabilitating a bonded labourer was limited to Rs. 4,000, with state governments receiving 50% matching grants. Assistance was provided to freed bonded labourers to help them eke out their livelihoods. By March 1995, 2,51,424 bonded labourers were identified and released, with 2,27,404 fully rehabilitated. The government further increased financial assistance to Rs. 10,000 per bonded labourer in August 1994. Between May 1978 and September 2001, a total of 2,82,013 bonded labourers were released.
• Challenges in Eradicating Bonded Labour: Despite the government's efforts, it is highly exaggerated to claim that only 5,700 bonded labourers remain to be rehabilitated. A closer look at the Indian rural setup reveals that the exact number of bonded labourers is likely much higher than official estimates, as suggested by non-governmental organizations like the Gandhi Peace Foundation. The lack of organization among bonded labourers as a pressure group also hinders their ability to assert their rights and demand change.

Challenges in the Effective Rehabilitation of Bonded Labour

The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act has not been effectively implemented in all regions, primarily due to a lack of enforcement mechanisms. The enactment of any legislation requires dedication and commitment, but unfortunately, this has been lacking in the case of bonded labour in India. As a result, the system continues to persist. Several challenges have been identified in the effective implementation of the legislation and the rehabilitation of bonded labourers.

• Integration with Rural Development Programmes: The rehabilitation programmes for bonded labourers have often been treated as separate initiatives, resulting in their failure. It is essential to integrate these rehabilitation efforts with rural development programmes and establish proper coordination between them to ensure their success.
• Overburdened Development Departments: Development departments are burdened with numerous schemes like IRDP, JRY, TRYSEM, etc., leaving them with insufficient time and resources to focus on rehabilitation programmes for bonded labourers. This has negatively impacted the effectiveness of these programmes.
• Lack of Qualified and Committed Staff: The success of rehabilitation programmes depends significantly on the availability of qualified and committed staff. Unfortunately, this has been a challenge in many cases, leading to the ineffectiveness of these programmes.
• Interference of Middlemen: Middlemen have been known to exploit the benefits and resources of rehabilitation programmes, depriving the freed bonded labourers of their rightful share. It is crucial to formulate rehabilitation programmes that minimize the interference of middlemen and ensure that the benefits reach the intended beneficiaries.
• Limited Freedom of Choice for Freed Bonded Labourers: Freed bonded labourers, who come from the lowest strata of society, are often not given the freedom to choose a rehabilitation scheme but are instead forced to accept a specific scheme assigned by bureaucrats. Providing these individuals with the freedom to select a suitable scheme is essential for their successful rehabilitation.
• Unchanged Attitudes of Former Employers: The attitudes of former bonded labour keepers and employers have not significantly changed towards the freed bonded labourers. They often attempt to suppress the efforts of these individuals to progress and improve their lives. It is crucial for landlords and other employers to change their attitudes towards bonded labourers in light of the evolving socio-economic conditions.

Conclusion

The Green Revolution had a significant impact on Indian agriculture, transforming the nation from a food deficit to a food surplus country. However, the revolution also led to increased inequality and regional disparities in agricultural growth. The emergence of gentleman farmers, capitalist farmers, and dominant middle-caste peasantry has changed the landscape of Indian agriculture. Additionally, bonded labor remains a pressing issue, with challenges in implementing legislation and rehabilitating bonded laborers. To ensure sustainable growth and social equity, it is crucial to address these disparities and challenges in the Indian agricultural sector.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Green Revolution and Social Change

What is the Green Revolution and how did it affect Indian agriculture?

The Green Revolution refers to the fundamental change and phenomenal increase in food grain production in India during the late 1960s. It was characterized by the adoption of modern farming techniques, including the use of high-yielding varieties of seeds, fertilizers, and assured irrigation facilities. As a result, India transformed from a food deficit country to a food surplus country, achieving self-sufficiency in food grains.

What were the main causes of food grain shortage in India before the Green Revolution?

The shortage of food grains in India was mainly caused by low productivity of land, overdependence on monsoon, and the outdated agrarian structure. To address this issue, various schemes were implemented under the Five-Year Plans, land reforms, and commodity development programs. However, these efforts could not initially succeed in increasing agricultural production.

What are the socioeconomic consequences of the Green Revolution in India?

The Green Revolution has brought about significant improvements in food security, hunger alleviation, and economic growth in India. However, the impact has not been uniformly positive for all sections of the agrarian population. Some consequences include unequal access to technology and resources, declining real wages for agricultural laborers, increased economic inequality and agrarian unrest, limited benefits for poor farmers, sharecroppers, and landless laborers, regional disparities in agricultural growth, and disproportionate social index growth.

What are the main features and causes of bonded labor in India?

Bonded labor is a form of modern-day slavery that primarily affects the most vulnerable and marginalized sections of society, such as the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and semi-tribal people. The main features of bonded labor include indebtedness, forced labor, and hereditary servitude. The causes of bonded labor include economic factors, such as extreme poverty and heightened unemployment, social causes like casteism and discrimination, and religious beliefs that promote servitude.

What are the challenges in eradicating bonded labor and rehabilitating bonded laborers in India?

Challenges in eradicating bonded labor and rehabilitating bonded laborers include integration with rural development programs, overburdened development departments, lack of qualified and committed staff, interference of middlemen, limited freedom of choice for freed bonded laborers, and unchanged attitudes of former employers. Addressing these challenges is essential for the effective implementation of the Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act and the successful rehabilitation of bonded laborers.